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RIVERSIDE  TEXTBOOKS 
IN  EDUCATION 

EDITED  BY  ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR   OF   EDUCATION 
LELAND   STANFORD   JUNIOR    UNIVERSITY 


DIVISION  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

UNDER  THE  EDITORIAL  DIRECTION 

OF  ALEXANDER   INGLIS 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR    OF   EDUCATION 
HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


Photograph,  Brown  Brothers 

Fig.  1.  The  Mount  Morris  High  School,  in*  New  York  City 

An  excellent  example  of  a  large  and  well-lighted  building.    C.  B.  J.  Snyder,  architect 


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HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

How  to  Build,  Equip,  and  Maintain  Them 

BY 

MAY  AYRES 

AUTHOR   OF    "  FIRE    PROTECTION    IN    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS,"  AND    CO- 
AUTHOR OF  "SCHOOL  BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT" 
"HEALTH    OF    SCHOOL    CHILDREN,"  AND 
" SAFEGUARDING  SCHOOL  HOUSES 


FROM    FIRE 


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JESSE  F.  WILLIAMS,  A.B.,  M.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  HYGIENE  AND  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CINCINNATI 

AND 

THOMAS  D.  WOOD,  A.M.,  M.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION,  TEACHERS  COLLEGE 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY;  CHAIRMAN  COMMITTEE  ON 

HEALTH  PROBLEMS,  NATIONAL  COUNCIL 

OF  EDUCATION 


-    . 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 


BOSTON 


NEW  YORK 


CHICAGO 


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COPYRIGHT,    1918,   BY   MAY   AYRES  BURGESS,  JESSE   F.   WILLIAMS,  AND 

THOMAS    D.    WOOD 

ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 


* 


CAMBRIDGE  .   MASSACHUSETTS 
U   .    S   .    A 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

The  subject  of  school  hygiene  comprises  two  general 
fields.  First,  the  provision  of  healthful  physical  environment 
for  school  children,  and  second,  the  conduct  of  healthful 
school  activities.  Under  the  first  head  we  have  to  do  with 
such  matters  as  schoolhouse  construction,  fire  protection, 
lighting,  and  sanitation;  uncfer  the  second,  we* deal  with 
medical  inspection  and  supervision,  playground  activities, 
outdoor  classes,  and  the  like. 

These  two  main  groups  have  been  subdivided  into  smaller 
branches,  each  growing  up  almost  independently  of  the 
other,  and  it  is  only  recently  that  school  men  have  recog- 
j  nized  their  essential  unity  and  grouped  them  all  together 
'  under  the  general  heading  of  school  hygiene.  It  is  not  at  all 
unusual  even  now  to  find  large  and  fairly  well-organized 
school  systems  where  the  division  of  physical  training  has 
little  to  do  with  the  division  of  medical  inspection;  where 
the  medical  inspection  is  under  the  control  of  a  city  or 
county  board  of  health;  and  where  the  provision  of  school 
lunches,  open-air  classes,  classes  for  exceptional  children, 
fire  protection,  and  the  cleaning  of  school  buildings  are  all 
matters  which  concern  separate  departments  within  the 
school  system.  The  appointment  of  an  assistant  superin- 
tendent of  schools  in  charge  of  child  hygiene  and  child  wel- 
fare, who  shall  have  all  such  matters  under  his  supervision, 
has  only  recently  been  accepted  in  educational  theory,  and 
is  still  a  new  and  not  frequently  found  feature  of  school 
administration. 

Because  the  question  of  school  hygiene  has  never  until 
recently  been  thought  of  as  a  whole  by  educators,  but  has 

384974 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

been  split  up  into  a  score  of  apparently  unrelated  minor 
problems,  its  progress  has  been  erratic.  Minimum  require- 
ments in  some  cases  are  laid  down  by  the  State,  with  im- 
mense detail ;  in  others  the  State  makes  hardly  any  demands 
upon  the  local  school  authorities,  but  leaves  them  free  to 
carry  on  whatever  experiments  they  will.  In  general  those 
phases  of  school  hygiene  which  deal  with  school  buildings 

iand  the  material  welfare  have  been  given  large  emphasis, 
while  those  which  deal  with  child  welfare  have  been  neglected. 
The  natural  result  is  that  in  most  school  systems  important 
features  of  school  hygiene  are  largely  overlooked  or  entirely 
ignored;  and  that  the  school  superintendent  frequently  fails 
to  have  any  clear  conception  of  what  is  demanded  by  the 
situation.  The  school  authorities,  both  board  and  superin- 
tendent, too  frequently  fail  to  grasp  the  subject  as  a  unified 
whole. 

To  treat  the  subject  as  a  unified  whole,  and  in  condensed 
form,  has  been  the  purpose  of  the  authors  of  this  volume  in 
the  series.  The  authors  have  tried  to  set  forth  the  essentials, 
under  each  subdivision  of  the  subject,  which  the  school 
administrator  needs  to  know  in  order  to  safeguard  the 
.  health  of  the  children  under  his  care;  to  show  what  forms  of 
organization  the  different  branches  of  the  subject  involve; 
and  to  give  a  brief  statement  of  the  accepted  standards  in 
each  branch.  The  volume  should  prove  very  useful  as  a  text- 
book in;  school  hygiene  in  colleges  and  normal  schools,  and 
should  furnish  a  basis  for  intelligent  discussion  and  con- 
structive action  by  teachers,  supervisors,  superintendents, 
and  school  board  members. 

Ellwood  P.  Cubberley 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I.  Choosing  the  Schoolhouse  Site  ...      1 

Locating  a  building  —  Accessibility  —  The  school  census 
and  building  plans  —  Relation  to  public  highways  —  Removal 
from  disturbing  influences  —  Size  of  plot  —  Lighting  —  High 
ground  —  Soil  —  Improving  sites  of  old  buildings  —  Summary. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  II.  The  School  Building 13 

The  architect  —  The  plan  —  Apportionment  of  space  —  Unit 
plans  —  Height  of  building  —  Orientation  —  Foundations  — 
Basements  —  Roofs  —  Floors  and  floor  coverings  —  Walls  — 
Doors. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  III.  Rooms  in  the  School  Building       .      .    31 

Classroom  dimensions  —  High  ceilings  —  Wardrobes  —  Spe- 
cial classrooms  —  Kindergarten  —  Open-air  classrooms  —  Audi- 
toriums —  The  gymnasium  —  Libraries  —  Lunchrooms  —  Dis- 
pensary —  Office  — ■  Teachers'  room  —  The  janitor's  room  — 
Storerooms. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  IV.  Classroom  Equipment     .      .      .      .      .51 

Platform  —  Blackboards  —  Placing  and  heights  —  Dust  and 
erasers  —  Desks   and  chairs;    rules   for  placing  —  Adjustment 

—  Inspection  —  Should  be  single  —  Feet  and  floor — Rounded 
corners  —  Shape  of  seat  —  Tilting  of  seat  —  Support  for  back 

—  The  "minus  distance"  —  Desk  height  —  Desk-top  slant  — 
Movable  top  —  Pedestal  chairs  —  Movable  furniture  — Work- 
room furniture. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  V.  Lighting 66 

1.  Natural  lighting  —  Unilateral  —  Breeze  windows  —  Orien- 
tation —  Glass  area  —  Placing  —  Square  tops  —  Height  from 
floor  —  Frames  and  supports  —  Circulating  window  space  — 
Prism  glass  —  Overhead  lighting  —  Window  shades  —  Color 
schemes  —  Lighting  in  old  buildings. 


> 


viii  CONTENTS 

2.  Artificial  lighting  —  Recent  use  of  light  at  night  —  Direct 
glare  —  Indirect  glare  —  Flickering  —  Intensity  —  Shadows  — 
Contrasts  —  Kerosene  —  Acetylene  gas  —  Installing  an  acety- 
lene plant  —  Direct  lighting  —  Indirect  lighting  —  Semi-indirect 
lighting. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  VI.  Water  Supply 88 

Springs  and  wells  —  Carrying  water  by  hand  —  The  school 
"  well  —  Water  pressure  —  The  individual  cup  —  Bubbling  foun- 
tains —  Home-made  fountains  —  Cooler  attachments  —  Height 
of  fountains  — ■  The  habit  of  cleanliness  —  Lavatories  —  Hot 
water  —  Soap  —  Towels  —  Baths  as  punishment  —  Group  show- 
ers —  Dressing-rooms  —  Rural  bathing  —  Tubs  and  pools  — ■ 
Construction  of  pools  —  Keeping  the  water  pure  —  Rules  and 
regulations  for  pools. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  VII.  Toilets 105 

Typical  toilet-rooms  —  Location  and  lighting  —  Walls,  ceil- 
ings, and  floors  —  Equipment  per  number  of  pupils  —  Location 
of  equipment  —  Urinals  —  Latrines  —  Individual  flush  —  Auto- 
matic flush  and  nerve  strain — ■  Partitions  —  Doors  —  Seats  — 
Lavatories  near  toilets  —  Ventilation  —  Extra  toilet-rooms  — 
Toilet-rooms  in  high  schools  —  The  rural-school  problem  — 
Hookworm  disease  —  Rural  sanitary  surveys  —  Rural-school 
toilets  —  The  septic  tank  —  Location  of  rural  toilets  —  The 
L.S.R.  privy  —  Dry  privies  —  Outhouses. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  VIII.  Heating  and  Ventilation       .      .      .125 

The  lesson  of  contagious  disease  —  Survey  findings  —  Early 
theories  concerning  ventilation  —  Some  recent  experiments  — 
The  Springfield  Y.M.C.A.  experiment  —  Work  of  the  New  York 
State  Ventilating  Commission  —  Five  principles  of  ventilation  — ■ 
The  ventilating  engineer  —  Legislation  —  Stoves  —  Furnaces  — 
Hot-water  heating  —  Steam  heating  —  Heating  and  ventilating 
schemes  —  Flues;  use  of  windows  —  Fans  —  Air  cleaning  — ■  Air- 
moisteners  —  Thermometers  —  Thermograph  —  Thermostats  — 
Humidostats  — ■  Re-circulation  —  What  shall  schoolmen  do? 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  IX.  Protecting  Schoolhouses  from  Fire    .  160 

Fire  protection  unpopular  —  Fire-retarding  —  Attics  —  Corri- 
dors —  Assembly  rooms  —  Doors  —  Stairs  —  Width  and  hand- 


CONTENTS  ix 

rails  —  Landings  —  Exits  —  Railroad  doors  —  Fire  escapes  — 
The  inclined-plane  fire  escape  — ■  Essentials  of  a  fire  escape  — 
Basement  —  Cupboards  —  Manual  training  and  domestic  sci- 
ence —  Pipes  and  wires  —  Sprinklers  —  Fire  extinguishers  — ■ 
Signals  —  Fire  drills  —  Fire  protection  pays. 
Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  X.  Keeping  the  Schoolhouse  Clean     .      .  181     . 

The  janitor  —  How  diseases  are  transmitted  —  Prevention  of 
contagious  diseases  —  Cleaning  of  schoolroom  floors  —  Sweep- 
ing and  dusting  —  Scrubbing  and  care  of  floors  —  Use  of  oil  and 
tar  —  Cleaning  walls  and  blackboards  —  Keeping  toilets  clean  — 
Other  parts  of  the  building  —  Cleaning  the  windows  —  Vacuum 
cleaners  —  Types  of  vacuum  cleaners  —  Tools  for  vacuum 
cleaning  —  Suggestions  for  improving  service  —  Daily  cleaning 
schedule  — •  Conferences  and  study  courses  for  janitor  —  The 
janitor  as  a  teacher. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  XI.  Medical  Inspection     ^.      ....  208 

Medical  inspection  and  compulsory  education  —  Origin  of 
medical  inspection  —  Present  scope  of  medical  inspection  — 
Arguments  against  medical  inspection  —  Administration  of  a 
department  of  school  hygiene  —  Physicians  —  Nurses  —  Inspec- 
tion —  Records  —  Clinics  —  Follow-up  work  —  Staff  attitude  — 
Textbooks  on  school  hygiene. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 


CHAPTER  XII.  Physical  Training  and  Recreation     .  227 

Recreation  surveys  —  Commercial  amusements  —  Space  for 
play  —  Part  of  hygiene  teaching  —  Cooperation  of  medical  in- 
spectors —  Posture  work  —  Physiological  age  —  Classroom  exer- 
cises —  Recess  —  Teachers  and  games  —  Activities  outside 
school  hours  —  Athletics  —  The  athletic-badge  test  —  Group 
athletics  —  Public  School  Athletic  League  —  Educational  sports 

—  Wider  use  of  school  plant  —  Survey  suggestions  —  Springfield 

—  Ipswich  —  Cleveland. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 

CHAPTER  XIII.  Exceptional  Children       .    u.      .      .  257 

Two  groups  —  Different  educational  treatment  —  The  socially 
competent  —  The  socially  incompetent  —  Assignment  to  classes 

—  Open-air  schools  and  fresh-air  classes  —  The  three  essentials 

—  Montclair's  experiment. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 


/ 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XIV.  School  Feeding 


26£ 


The  argument  for  school  feeding  —  The  Philadelphia  experi- 
ment —  What  school  lunches  are  —  Theory  of  school  feeding  — 
The  concessionaire  —  The  supervisor  —  Saleswomen  —  Pupil 
workers  —  Centralization  of  the  school  lunch  —  Hygienic  re- 
quirements —  Records  and  forms  —  Costs  —  Equipment  — 
Supervision  —  Preparation  and  service  —  The  Philadelphia  Re- 
port. 

Questions  for  study  and  discussion  —  Selected  references. 


INDEX 


285 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.    1.   The  Mount  Morris  High  School,  in  New  York 

City Frontispiece 

Fig.    2.   Three  Generations  of  School  Buildings,  San 

Francisco,  Californla 10 

Fig.    3.   Three  Generations  of  a  School  Building,  East 

Orange,  New  Jersey 11 

Fig.    4.   The  New  Empire  School  at  Cleveland  ...  14 

Fig.    5.   First-Floor  Plan  for  the  Empire  School,  Cleve- 
land      15 

Fig.   6.   Typical  Manual-Training  Department  Rooms  .  41 

Fig.    7.  Typical  Household-Economy  Rooms  .  .      .42 

Fig.    8.   The  Evolution  of  the  Schoolroom  Seat       .      .  56 

Fig.    9.   A  Movable  Schoolroom  Chair 57 

Fig.  10.   Types  of  Adjustable  Seats  and  Desks   ...  CO 

Fig.  11.   Adjustable  Seats  properly  Adjusted     .      .      .61 

Fig.  12.   Remodeling  a  School  Building  to  improve  the 

Lighting 68 

Fig.  13.   Overhead  Lighting  ln  an  Elementary-School 

Assembly  Hall  at  Holly,  Michigan  .      .      .  C9 

Fig.  14.   Indirect  Artificial  Lighting 84 


Xll 

Fig.  15. 
Fig.  16. 
Fig.  17. 
Fig.  18. 


Fig.  19. 
Fig.  20. 
Fig.  21. 
Fig.  22. 
Fig.  23. 
Fig.  24. 
Fig.  25. 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Semi-Indirect  Artificial  Lighting    ....    85 

A  School  Swimming-Pool 108 

Toilets 109 

Fire  Dangers  which  need  Attention     .      .      .164 

(a)  A  Dangerous  Basement 

(b)  A  Fire  Trap  of  a  Stairway 

An  Incline  as  a  Substitute  for  a  Stairway 


Medical  Inspection 

A  Dental  Clinic  in  Rochester,  New  York 
Physical  Training  —  Girls  .... 
Physical  Training  —  Boys    .... 
An  Open-Air  Class  in  Chicago  in  Winter 


.  165 
.  210 
.  211 

.  234 
.  235 

.  262 


An  Open-Air  School  at  San  Diego,  California  .  263 


HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER  I 

CHOOSING  THE  SCHOOL  SITE 

Locating  a  building.  In  the  small  town  or  rural  com- 
munity the  location  of  the  new  school  building  is  not  infre- 
quently a  burning  issue.  Superintendents  have  lost  their 
places  and  school  boards  have  failed  of  reelection  because 
of  the  unpopularity  of  their  decisions.  Occasionally  this  is  a 
desirable  result;  but  far  too  often  the  pressure  brought  to 
bear  upon  educational  authorities  has  been  due  to  the  inter- 
ests of  local  factions,  rather  than  to  an  appreciation  of  the 
needs  of  school  children.  Sometimes  trouble  arises  over  the 
distribution  of  population.  Parents  on  one  side  of  town  are 
unwilling  that  their  children  should  be  obliged  to  walk  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  farther  than  those  at  the  other  side  of  the 
district;  and  a  plot  of  land  is  chosen  as  nearly  as  possible  at 
equal  distances  from  both,  and  fought  for  bitterly.  Some- 
times the  school  is  desired  as  a  show  building,  and  leading 
citizens  demand  its  location  on  the  main  street  near  the  rail- 
road station,  police  headquarters,  and  the  fire-engine  house; 
or  a  plot  of  land  near  the  marshes  on  the  lower  part  of  town 
can  be  used  for  nothing  else,  and  is  urged  upon  the  school 
board  because  it  is  for  sale  cheap. 

It  is  thoroughly  desirable  that  the  people  of  the  com- 
munity should  feel  this  active  interest  in  the  erection  of  their 
new  school  building,  and  it  is  but  natural  that  they  should 
wish  to  have  a  part  in  the  final  decision.  Yet  local  people 
must  remember,  and  school  men  must  forcefully  remind 


2  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

them,  whe,n  necessary,  ihat  the  schoolhouse  is  intended  pri- 
marily for  children;  and  the  location  chosen  must  be,  not 
that  which  most  pleases  fathers  and  toothers,  but  that 
which  will  provide  most  fully  the  educational  opportunities 
their  children  need. 

Accessibility.  The  location  chosen  should  be  within  reach 
of  all  the  children;  but  this  does  not  necessarily  mean  at 
the  center  of  the  district.  No  child  should  have  to  walk 
more  than  a  mile  and  a  half  to  school;  and  where  the  build- 
ing is  at  a  greater  distance  some  means  of  transportation 
should  be  provided  at  public  expense.  Where  city  schools 
are  placed  several  miles  away  in  the  country,  as  has  fre- 
quently been  suggested,  for  example,  in  New  York,  trans- 
portation facilities  should  be  under  careful  supervision,  with 
special  cars  and  through  service,  so  that  parents  may  feel 
no  anxiety  concerning  the  children's  safety.  Parents  are  in- 
clined to  object  strongly  to  any  arrangement  which  takes 
their  children  more  than  a  few  blocks  away  from  home. 
Attempts  to  do  so  must  be  tactfully  and  gradually  intro- 
duced. 

In  some  of  the  more  sparsely  settled  States,  school  build- 
ings have  been  erected  on  plain  or  mountain-side  without 
reference  to  any  public  highway.  Naturally  teacher  and 
pupils  could  only  reach  the  spot  with  difficulty,  and  it  is 
now  not  uncommon  to  find  legal  provision  made  against 
such  isolation. 

The  school  census  and  building  plans.  It  is  important 
in  choosing  new  sites  for  school  buildings  to  keep  in  mind 
the  chances  of  a  growing  and  shifting  population.  In 
the  Cleveland  Education  Survey  Report  on  Buildings  and 
Equipment  we  find :  — 

The  change  in  location  of  the  Otis  Steel  Company's  plant  to  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  city  has  resulted  in  a  sudden  overflow 
of  pupils  in  the  Tremont  School.   Hundreds  of  families  are  moving 


CHOOSING  THE  SCHOOL  SITE  3 

into  the  vicinity  of  the  new  works,  and  demanding  school  accom- 
modation for  their  children.  Temporary  quarters  have  been  ar- 
ranged in  basement  or  "ground-floor"  rooms  and  portables;  but 
now  the  Board  is  facing  the  necessity  of  erecting  an  annex  to 
Tremont  and  will  probably  soon  need  to  build  a  new  building  in 
the  near  vicinity.  The  Harmon  School,  which  has  until  now  been 
seriously  overcrowded,  is  just  on  the  boundary  line  of  what  will 
shortly  be  an  immense  freight  yard.  Over  one  thousand  families 
have  been  forced  to  leave  their  homes  in  order  to  make  room  for 
the  new  tracks.  Their  children  are  no  longer  in  the  Harmon 
District;  but  where  they  are  going  no  one  yet  knows.  They  may 
scatter  over  the  city  or  migrate  in  a  body.  The  Board  is  anxiously 
concerned  as  to  their  destination;  for  it  may  seriously  affect  the 
school-building  policy. 

Besides  such  sudden  changes  from  one  part  of  the  city  to 
another,  there  is  the  more  steady  growth  and  shifting  which 
takes  place  year  by  year,  and  which  must  be  taken  into 
account  in  mapping  out  the  school-building  policy.  The 
school  census,  which  is  required  by  law  in  many  places,  and 
which  is  a  regular  feature  of  school  administration  in  most 
progressive  communities,  furnishes  excellent  means  for 
judging  changes  and  trends  in  population.  The  Cleveland 
Report  continues :  — 

By  comparing  results  from  year  to  year  future  growth  can  be 
predicted  and  new  buildings  planned  accordingly,  while  smaller 
unexpected  shifts  can  be  handled  through  emergency  measures 
during  the  summer  vacation  immediately  following  the  census 
returns.  The  school  census  should  be  one  basis  for  shaping  the 
future  building  policy  of  the  Board. 

Relation  to  public  highways.  The  schoolhouse  should  be 
near  the  public  highway,  but  not  too  near.  A  hundred  years 
ago  it  was  the  common  thing  for  buildings  to  be  erected  on 
the  road  itself,  not  infrequently  placed  in  the  center  of  the 
crossroads,  so  that  vehicles  passed  on  all  four  sides,  and  the 
highway  served  as  the  only  playground.  To-day  we  try  to 
secure  sites  large  enough  so  that  the  building  may  be  placed 


4  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

at  some  distance  back  from  the  street,  or,  when  this  is  not 
possible,  we  plan  to  have  all  classrooms  face  away  from  the 
street  and  thus  escape  part  of  the  noise  and  dust  of  travel. 
It  is  rarely  wise  to  place  a  school  building  directly  on  the 
main  thoroughfare,  because  such  a  location  is  apt  to  bring 
with  it,  either  at  the  time  of  building  or  in  the  near  future, 
the  noise  of  cars  and  other  vehicles,  shouts  of  newsboys 
and  peddlers,  clanging  of  police,  ambulance,  and  fire-en- 
gine gongs,  and  (it her  disturbances  which  render  teaching 
and  learning  difficult.  Moreover,  property  values  on  such  a 
street  are  apt  to  be  so  high  that  the  schools  feel  extra  grounds 
an  extravagance,  and  little  space  is  secured  for  playgrounds, 
athletic  fields,  or  gardens.  Tall  buildings  crowd  in  on  every 
side,  and  there  is  difficulty  in  securing  proper  lighting.  In- 
stead of  following  t he  rule  that  "Each  child  at  his  seat  must 
sec  the  sky,"  we  often  furnish  the  pupil  with  an  uninspiring 
view  of  brick  walls  and  iron  fire  escapes. 

In  cities  and  towns  the  school  building  should  be  placed 
on  a  quiet  side  street,  away  from  dangerous  crossings  and 
car  tracks.  Where  it  is  necessary  for  all  or  most  of  the  pupils 
to  cross  the  car  tracks,  it  is  probably  wise  to  place  the  school 
near  enough  to  the  crossing  so  that  the  teachers  may  exer- 
cise supervision.  In  the  larger  cities  such  supervision  is 
taken  in  charge  by  the  police  force;  but  in  many  of  the 
smaller  places  crossings  are  unprotected  and  furnish  a  real 
danger.  A  zone  of  quiet  should  be  established  around  every 
school  building. 

Removed  from  disturbing  influences.  In  both  urban  and 
rural  districts  care  should  be  taken  to  select  a  school  site 
which  is  at  a  distance  from  annoying  or  improper  influences. 
Many  States  have  by  legislative  act  established  zones  around 
each  schoolhouse  within  which  certain  activities  are  pro- 
hibited. For  example,  in  Iowa  no  bills,  posters,  or  other 
matter  advertising  liquor  or  tobacco  may  be  distributed, 


CHOOSING  THE  SCHOOL  SITE  5 

posted,  or  circulated  within  four  hundred  feet  of  premises 
used  for  school  purposes.  Many  States  provide  similar  zones 
in  which  liquor  cannot  be  sold.  A  regulation  of  the  Dela- 
ware State  Board  of  Health  forbids  the  placing  of  any  stable, 
pigpen,  or  other  building  liable  to  become  a  nuisance  within 
two  hundred  feet  of  any  schoolhouse,  or  within  one  hundred 
feet  of  the  school  yard.  The  Indiana  law  says  there  must  be 
no  steam  railroads,  livery  stables,  barns  used  for  breeding 
purposes,  noisy  industries,  or  unhealthful  conditions  within 
five  hundred  feet  of  schools,  and  the  State  Board  of  Health 
has  defined  these  "unhealthful  conditions"  by  demanding 
that  a  zone  of  five  hundred  feet  radius  about  the  school 
site  be  free  from  swampy  ground,  body  of  stagnant  water, 
cemetery,  slaughterhouse,  fertilizer-reduction  plant,  or  any 
business  or  manufacturing  establishment  which  engenders 
noxious  odors  or  vapors  or  that  pollutes  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  by  smoke  or  dust. 

Size  of  plot.  The  site  must  not  only  be  well  located  with 
reference  to  accessibility,  freedom  from  noise,  odors,  and 
the  like,  but  it  must  also  be  large  enough  to  make  possible 
newer  methods  in  education.  In  the  old  days,  when  all 
learning  was  book  learning,  and  pupils  were  expected  to  sit 
still  during  the  entire  school  period,  there  was  comparatively 
little  need  for  large  school  grounds.  Even  to-day,  if  the 
teacher  is  willing  to  confine  his  activities  to  this  narrow 
and  less  fatiguing  conception  of  education,  he  need  concern 
himself  little  with  playgrounds  and  gardens.  But  public 
opinion  is  gradually  changing,  and  the  thoroughly  up-to- 
date  community  is  scarcely  willing  to  submit  its  children 
to  the  outworn  methods  of  a  hundred  years  ago.  Mod- 
ern schooling  takes  place  outdoors  as  well  as  in;  and  large 
grounds  are  necessary  if  children  are  to  be  properly  cared 
for. 

That    this  is  a   new  conception  in    education  may  be 


6  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

gathered  from  reading  the  various  State  laws,  many  of 
which  must  inevitably  be  changed  in  the  near  future.  For 
example,  William  A.  Cook,  of  the  University  of  Colorado, 
in  his  study  of  laws  and  regulations  governing  the  hygiene 
and  sanitation  of  schoolhouses,  published  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  in  1915,  gives  as  the  absolute 
maxima  for  the  size  of  school  sites  in  certain  States,  "Dela- 
ware, one  half  acre;  Kentucky  and  New  Hampshire,  one 
acre;  Kansas,  one  and  a  half  acres;  Massachusetts  and 
South  Dakota,  two  acres  (although  in  South  Dakota  schools 
giving  courses  in  agriculture  may  purchase  ten  acres  for  site 
and  demonstration  purposes);  Maine,  three  acres;  Mary- 
land and  North  Dakota,  five  acres." 

While  the  actual  number  of  square  feet  in  each  school 
site  must  of  necessity  vary,  the  grounds  selected  should  be 
large  enough  to  allow  for  the  erection  of  low  buildings  — 
not  more  than  two  stories  high  —  with  an  auditorium  and 
other  special  rooms.  In  addition  there  should  be  plenty  of 
playground  space.  The  common  recommendation  of  fifty 
square  feet  per  child  allows  him  only  about  two  and  a  half 
times  as  much  space  as  he  is  allotted  in  the  average  forty- 
pupil  classroom.  Such  an  arrangement  is  well  fitted  to  quiet 
games  of  marbles,  mumble-peg,  or  jackstones;  but  if  chil- 
dren are  to  join  in  active  sports  with  running  and  jumping 
they  must  be  provided  with  at  least  two  hundred  square 
feet  of  playground  space  for  every  pupil  enrolled. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  playground  space  there  should 
be  some  provision  for  special  games,  such  as  handball, 
volley-ball,  tennis,  or  basket-ball.  Each  country  school 
should  be  provided  with  a  good  baseball  field,  and  all  of  the 
larger  schools  should  have  running-tracks.  Where  land  is 
cheap,  space  for  an  outdoor  theater  is  a  good  investment. 
The  school  grounds  should  also  include  ample  space  for 
individual  or  group  gardening.     The  rural  school  should 


CHOOSING  THE  SCHOOL  SITE  7 

never  occupy  less  than  three  acres  of  land;  the  city  school 
should  be  provided  with  from  three  to  ten  acres,  depending 
upon  the  number  of  children  cared  for.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  many  of  our  city  schools  are  located  where  land  is  so 
expensive  that  little  more  than  enough  ground  to  support 
the  building  can  be  purchased. 

Lighting.  The  school  board  must  look,  then,  for  a  plot 
of  ground  of  several  acres,  easily  accessible,  and  protected 
from  noise  and  nuisances.  In  addition,  the  location  must 
be  such  that  plenty  of  sunlight  is  available  throughout  the 
year.  In  mountainous  districts  the  horizon  line  is  often  high, 
so  that  schools  built  in  the  valley  or  on  the  side  hill  are  dur- 
ing a  large  part  of  the  day  in  shadow.  Sometimes  suggested 
sites  are  too  close  to  thick  groves  of  trees,  or  in  city  districts 
tall  buildings  cut  off  much  of  the  light.  There  are  various 
rules  for  deciding  upon  the  location  of  buildings  with  respect 
to  light.  One  is  that  every  child  should  be  able,  sitting  at  his 
seat,  to  see  the  sky.  Another  is  that  no  tree  or  building 
should  be  nearer  to  the  school  windows  than  twice  its  own 
height.  Where  obstructions  occur  on  one  side  of  the  loca- 
tion only,  the  difficulty  may  frequently  be  met  by  placing 
the  windows  of  the  classrooms  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
building. 

High  ground.  In  rural  districts  it  is  frequently  necessary 
to  provide  protection  against  strong  winds  and  storms.  The 
State  Board  of  Health  of  Vermont  refuses  to  approve  a  site 
for  a  rural  school  unless  it  is  so  protected.  The  common 
practice  of  locating  the  school  building  at  the  summit  of  the 
highest  hill  in  town  is  strongly  to  be  condemned  on  this  and 
several  other  counts.  Not  only  is  a  building  so  situated 
exposed  to  all  the  rigors  of  the  climate  (which  frequently 
render  heating  problems  serious),  but  the  location  demands 
unnecessary  exertion  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  pupils  in 
reaching  the  school,  and  effectually  prevents  many  parents 


8  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

from  ever  visiting  it.  Moreover,  such  a  site  is  poorly  adapted 
to  playground  use,  because  there  are  very  few  games  which 
can  be  played  on  a  slanting  surface;  and  school  gardens  so 
located  are  apt  to  be  of  poor  soil,  and  easily  washed  away 
by  violent  rains.  It  is  well  to  build  the  schoolhouse  on  land 
higher  than  that  around  it,  but  this  should  not  mean  at  the 
top  of  a  hill. 

Soil.  One  of  the  most  important  points  to  be  considered 
in  the  selection  of  a  site  for  the  new  school  building  is  the 
character  of  the  soil.  Swampy  land,  clay,  or  made  ground 
are  all  to  be  avoided,  because  of  the  danger  of  ground  air 
and  ground  damp.  Probably  a  sandy  loam  is  the  most  desir- 
able soil  for  building  purposes.  For  many  feet  below  the 
surface  the  earth  is  honeycombed  with  little  crannies  and 
interstices,  each  filled  with  air  which  flows  from  one  to  the 
next.  During  a  long  summer's  day  the  earth,  together  with 
the  earth-bound  air,  becomes  warmed.  At  the  end  of  the 
day,  when  the  sun  goes  down,  the  upper  air  becomes  chilled 
and  heavy;  it  sinks  down  into  the  ground  and  forces  out  the 
lighter  warmed  air  which  has  been  hidden  below  the  surface. 
This  ground  air,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  is  heavily  laden 
with  impurities.  Bits  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter,  as 
they  decompose,  give  off  gases  which  are  carried  to  the 
outer  air.  Ground  air  is  heavily  charged  with  moisture.  It 
is  rich  in  carbon  dioxide,  and  frequently  contains  marsh 
gas,  hydrogen  sulphide,  and  ammonia. 

When  at  night  the  chilled  air  presses  down  upon  the 
earth's  surface,  the  ground  air  seeks  the  easiest  means  of 
escape.  The  soil  directly  beneath  the  building  is  apt  to  be 
dry  and  warm,  and  since  the  pressure  of  air  in  the  cellar  is 
slight,  the  natural  result  is  that  the  ground  air  rushes  up  from 
the  earth  through  the  cellar,  as  though  drawn  through  a 
huge  chimney.  In  sandy  soils  it  is  easy  for  the  air  to  escape 
directly  to  the  surface,  and  a  gradual  shifting  takes  place  all 


CHOOSING  THE  SCHOOL  SITE  9 

day  long,  but  where  the  surface  is  hard-baked  clay  or  frozen 
ground,  the  danger  of  ground  air  escaping  by  way  of  the 
cellar  is  very  great.  The  sweating  so  commonly  noticed  on 
cellar  walls  and  the  musty  cellar  odor  are  sure  signs  of  the 
presence  of  ground  air.  When  ground  water  rises  too  near 
the  surface  and  is  not  quickly  evaporated  by  the  sun's  rays, 
—  where,  that  is,  the  soil  is  impervious  and  forms  a  thick 
crust  through  which  air  and  water  move  but  slowly,  —  the 
under  soil  is  kept  damp  and  decomposition  of  organic  matter 
is  greatly  accelerated.  As  a  result,  escaping  ground  air  is 
heavily  laden  with  impurities.  In  choosing  a  school  site, 
therefore,  we  must  avoid  low,  marshy  land  where  there  is 
likely  to  be  a  constant  supply  of  moisture  below  the  sur- 
face, or  clay  soil  which  forms  a  hard  crust  and  prevents 
thorough  ventilation  of  the  earth. 

We  must  also  —  and  this  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of 
town  and  city  schools  —  avoid  erecting  buildings  on  made 
ground,  because,  where  lots  have  been  filled  in  by  using  them 
as  dumping  grounds,  there  is  usually  an  excess  of  organic 
and  corrupting  materials.  Where  possible,  if  such  a  site  must 
be  used,  the  contaminating  material  should  be  scraped  up 
and  carted  away.  To  cover  up  such  refuse  by  sandy  loam  is 
of  little  value.  In  certain  regions,  such  as  the  Fenway  of 
Boston,  for  example,  where  the  salt  marshes  of  twenty  years 
ago  have  been  converted  into  solid  ground  and  are  now  being 
utilized  as  sites  for  a  remarkable  gathering  of  educational 
institutions,  such  a  carting  away  is  entirely  out  of  the  ques- 
tion ;  and  the  only  remedy  is  to  abandon  the  site  or  else  pro- 
tect the  buildings  so  far  as  may  be  by  the  most  carefully 
built  drains  and  foundations. 

In  rural  schools  it  is  especially  important,  in  addition  to 
the  foregoing  considerations,  to  select  a  location  where 
the  surrounding  land  may  be  successfully  cultivated.  The 
teacher  who  seeks  to  conduct  classes  in  agriculture  cannot 


10  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

hope  to  gain  the  cooperation  of  near-by  farmers  unless  the 
school  gardens  are  worth  working  over. 

Improving  sites  of  old  buildings.  Old  schools  badly  located 
may  often  be  improved  by  a  few  simple  measures.  Bleak, 
windy  hilltops  may  sometimes  be  rendered  more  comfort- 
able by  building  a  surrounding  wall,  or  planting  sturdy  ever- 
green trees  so  as  to  form  a  windbreak. 

Busses  may  be  hired  to  carry  children  to  and  from  school 
to  outlying  homes. 

In  cities,  zones  of  quiet  may  be  established  through 
cooperation  with  the  police  department,  and  sometimes  a 
cobbled  street  may  be  repaved  with  asphalt  or  creosote 
blocks. 

Where  the  school  grounds  are  inadequate,  adjacent  plots 
may  sometimes  be  bought  or  hired;  and  school  gardens  have 
been  successfully  operated  at  some  distance  from  the  build- 
ing. Not  infrequently  a  vacant  lot  will  be  temporarily  do- 
nated for  school  purposes. 

The  lighting  problem  is  less  easily  handled.  Where  ob- 
structions are  on  one  side  only,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to 
increase  the  number  of  windows  on  the  opposite  side,  and 
one-story  schools  are  frequently  provided  with  skylights. 
Prism  glass  is  frequently  recommended.  Artificial  lighting 
during  regular  school  hours  is  not  desirable,  and  where  the 
natural  illumination  remains  insufficient  the  building  should 
be  abandoned  for  school  purposes. 

Where  an  old  school  shows  the  effects  of  ground  damp  and 
ground  air,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  carry  away  the  ground 
water  by  means  of  drains  outside  the  building  and  thus 
somewhat  retard  the  process  of  organic  decomposition. 
Occasionally  the  outer  part  of  the  foundation  walls  may  be 
rendered  impervious  to  water  by  coating  with  hot  tar  below 
the  earth  line.  Swamps  may  sometimes  be  drained,  and 
stagnant  pools  given  an  outlet  without  exorbitant  expense. 


»,    .'-••s*vw. 


A 


"■>t"f 


III 

lllli 


iH  I .«.  ft 


Fig.  2.  Three  Generations  of  School  Buildings 
San  Francisco,  California 

(a)  The  first  schoolhouse  in  the  city.    Erected  on  the  plaza  in  1847 

(b)  Type  of  grammar-school  buildings  of  the  seventies.    Wood;  capac- 
ity, one  thousand  pupils:  cost,  $.'{0,000 

(c)  The  Sarah  B.  Cooper  School.   Built  in  1914-15,  at  a  cost  of  $10:?,  1 H 


1 

Li 

!■!■  e  r 

i 

i 

Fig.  3.  Three  Generations  of  a  School  Building 
East  Orange,  New  Jersey 

(a)  First  Franklin  School,  20x34  feet.   Built  in  1825;  cost,  $233.91 
(6)  Second  Franklin  School.   Built  in  1873;  cost,  $10,304.87 
(c)  Third  Franklin  School.   Built  in  1886-1914;  cost,  $107,442 


CHOOSING  THE  SCHOOL  SITE  11 

To  summarize :  In  deciding  what  constitutes  a  satisfactory 
school  site,  we  shall  often  find  it  helpful  to  think  of  plots  of 
land  as  being  of  equal  value  in  every  other  particular,  and 
then  weighing  the  one  against  the  other  with  reference  to 
the  point  in  question.  For  example,  other  things  being  equal, 
that  site  is  preferable  which  is  more  centrally  located.  So 
we  may  also  say:  Other  things  being  equal,  that  site  is  pre- 
ferable which  — 

is  more  likely  to  fit  future  needs; 

is  more  accessible  to  the  public  highway; 

is  located  on  the  more  quiet  street; 

is  more  free  from  noise; 

is  more  free  from  dust; 

is  more  free  from  unpleasant  odors; 

is  more  free  from  immoral  or  disturbing  influences; 

is  less  likely  to  be  hemmed  in  by  surrounding  buildings; 

is  more  remote  from  dangerous  street  or  railroad  crossings; 

has  the  larger  area; 

receives  more  sunlight; 

is  more  protected  from  winds; 

is  on  higher  ground; 

is  not  on  hilltop  or  hillside; 

has  the  more  permeable  soil; 

has  less  decaying  organic  matter  in  the  soil; 

has  the  dryer  soil; 

is  more  easily  cultivated. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Outline  in  detail  a  method  for  using  census  figures  to  guide  building 
policy. 

2.  Make  a  survey  of  the  school  buildings  of  your  town.  Suppose  they 
all  were  to  be  rebuilt,  what  would  be  the  best  sites  for  them?  Why? 
How  could  their  present  sites  be  improved? 

3.  Who  should  be  consulted  in  selecting  the  school  site? 

4.  Suppose  that  only  one  site  is  available.  What  treatment  should  be 
given  the  soil  if  it  is  of  clay?   Of  sand?   Swampy? 


12  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

5.  How  can  the  school  board  know  what  kind  of  soil  underlies  a  pro- 
posed site? 

6.  Make  a  plan  showing  the  site  of  an  eight-room  elementary- school 
building.  Indicate  points  of  the  compass,  size  and  shape  of  plot, 
location  of  building,  location  and  number  of  trees,  gardens,  play- 
grounds, and  other  desirable  features. 

7.  Suppose  that  a  side  hill  is  the  only  site  available,  what  is  the  desirable 
treatment? 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  and  May.   School  Buildings  and  Equipment.   Cleveland 
Education  Survey.    (1916.)    Russell  Sage  Foundation. 
Discusses  relation  of  school  census  to  building  policy. 

Barnard,  Henry.  School  Architecture  (various  dates). 

Of  historical  interest.   Contains  quotations  from  school  reports. 

Cook,  William  A.   Schoolhouse  Sanitation.   United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, Bulletin  no.  21.    (1915). 
Study  of  laws  and  regulations  governing  the  hygiene  and  sanitation  of  schoolhouses. 

Cubberley,  E.  P.    School  Organization  and  Administration.    World  Book 
Company  (1916),  chap.  v. 
Value  of  a  school  census  in  locating  new  school  buildings. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.  American  Schoolhouses\  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education,  Bulletin  no.  5.    (1910.) 

Good  discussion  of  ground  air  and  ground  water. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.  School  Hygiene.  The  Macmillan  Company  (1913), 
chap.  in. 

Good  discussion  of  sites. 

Whipple,  Guy  Montrose.  Questions  in  School  Hygiene.  Cornell  Study 
Bulletins  for  Teachers  (C.  W.  Bardeen,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.Y., 
1909),  Section  A. 

List  of  questions  to  be  answered  by  student  of  education  on  school  site. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING 

The  architect.  The  most  important  part  of  a  school  build- 
ing is  the  planning  which  precedes  it.  During  the  early  part 
of  the  century  drawing  up  specifications  for  a  new  school- 
house  frequently  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  school  board,  the 
teacher,  the  local  carpenter,  or  persons  who  spoke  of  them- 
selves as  "amateurs  in  architecture."  To-day  there  are 
firms  and  individual  architects  who  have  gained  national 
reputations  in  the  field,  and  who  devote  all  of  their  time  to 
school  planning.  School  boards  in  many  of  the  larger  cities 
employ  one  or  more  architects,  on  a  full-time  basis,  because 
they  have  found  that  expert  service  is  in  the  long  run  a  wise 
investment.  No  matter  whether  the  community  in  question 
be  city,  town,  or  country,  the  services  of  an  architect  with 
long  experience  in  school  work  should  be  utilized  before 
building  operations  are  undertaken. 

In  cities,  where  school  buildings  are  necessarily  large  and 
complicated,  it  is  best  either  to  secure  the  permanent  serv- 
ices of  a  well-qualified  architect  who  will  devote  all  his  time 
to  local  problems,  or  to  put  the  matter  into  the  hands  of  one 
of  several  architectural  firms  which  have  made  schoolhouse 
planning  their  specialty.  Smaller  towns  will  do  well  either 
to  consult  one  of  these  firms,  or  to  secure  plans  of  buildings 
already  erected  under  the  direction  of  well-qualified  archi- 
tects. The  local  architect,  no  matter  how  clever,  should  not 
be  hired  to  superintend  the  erection  of  the  new  school  build- 
ing until  he  has  given  positive  evidence  of  understanding 
this  highly  specialized  branch  of  his  subject. 


14  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Town  and  rural  communities  should  take  advantage  of 
the  assistance  offered  by  many  State  departments  of  educa- 
tion and  by  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Education  at  Washington. 
Plans  for  rural  and  consolidated  schools  have  been  drawn 
by  some  of  the  most  skillful  architects  in  the  United  States, 
and  may  be  secured  either  entirely  free  or  for  a  small  sum. 
The  Bureau  also  gladly  furnishes  criticism  and  suggestion 
on  proposed  plans.  Such  works  as  F.  B.  Dresslar's  American 
Schoolhouses  and  Rural  Schoolhouses  and  Grounds,  both  pub- 
lished as  bulletins  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, contain  plans  and  suggestions  which  not  only  give  help 
to  boards  planning  to  build,  but  also  serve  as  textbooks  for 
boards  and  teachers  who  are  seeking  to  learn  more  about 
the  problems  involved  in  schoolhouse  construction.  The 
American  School  Board  Journal  has  a  special  division  for 
new  buildings,  and  the  educational  authorities  of  several 
States  have  prepared  bulletins  showing  plans  and  specifica- 
tions. No  matter  how  poor  a  community  may  be,  it  has  no 
excuse  for  building  a  badly  planned  schoolhouse. 

The  plan.  The  plan  chosen  should  provide  for  a  building, 
beautiful  in  outline,  simple  to  construct,  adequate  for  edu- 
cational purposes,  and,  in  regions  where  the  population  is 
steadily  increasing,  so  designed  that  new  portions  can  be 
added  without  impairing  the  utility  or  beauty  of  the  old. 
The  American  public  is  slowly  being  convinced  that  towers, 
wooden  scroll-work,  pointed  windows,  and  diamond  panes 
are  not  only  ugly,  but  evidences  of  poor  taste  as  well.  Archi- 
tectural atrocities  are  still  to  be  found  newly  risen  on  every 
hand,  but  their  number  is  decreasing,  and  reputable  firms 
no  longer  bear  the  responsibility  for  them.  It  is  curiously 
true  that  beauty  of  outline  and  economy  of  money  outlay 
are  in  positive  correlation.  Given  the  same  quality  of  mate- 
rial and  workmanship,  the  same  equipment  of  rooms  and 
windows,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  building  with  plain 


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THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  15 

lines  will  actually  cost  less  in  dollars  and  cents  than  its  more 
pretentious  and  less  artistic  rival. 

Before  the  actual  lay-out  of  rooms  can  be  made,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  decide  in  general  what  sort  of  a  building  is  to  be 
erected.  Is  it  to  be  one  unit  in  a  building  group  arranged  on 
the  cottage  plan,  or  one  large  building  complete  in  itself? 
Is  it  to  be  several  stories  in  height,  or  shall  the  new  plan  be 
adopted  of  one-story  buildings  lighted  from  above?  Is  the 
building  to  be  of  non-fireproof,  semi-fireproof,  or  entirely 
fireproof  construction?  Shall  the  outer  walls  be  of  wood, 
brick,  stone,  or  concrete?  The  answer  to  all  these  questions 
will  necessarily  depend  upon  where  the  building  is  to  be 
located,  the  amount  of  money  available  for  building  pur- 
poses, and  the  especial  use  to  which  the  building  is  to  be  put. 

Before  the  plans  can  be  subjected  to  intelligent  criticism, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  school  authorities  shall  have  made 
a  careful  study  of  the  general  problems  of  school  hygiene. 
Before  the  building  committee  can  properly  act  upon  recom- 
mendations for  or  against  the  finished  plan,  its  members 
must  be  familiar  with  the  modern  standards  of  lighting, 
heating,  ventilating,  sanitation,  fire  protection,  arrange- 
ment of  classrooms,  and  the  like.  They  should  study  the 
educational  magazines  in  order  to  see  what  buildings  are 
being  erected  in  other  places,  and  should  visit  personally 
some  of  the  newest  and  most  interesting  buildings  in  the 
hope  of  getting  suggestions  for  their  own.  Since  the  archi- 
tecture of  schoolhouses  is  one  of  the  most  rapidly  changing 
fields,  it  is  important  that  superintendent  and  school  board 
members  make  special  efforts  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times. 
^When  one  realizes  that  flat-roofed  buildings  with  isolated 
stairways,  unilateral  lighting,  and  first-floor  auditoriums 
were  being  constructed  by  leading  architects  twenty  years 
ago,  one  feels  a  distinct  shock  to  discover  that  at  the  present 
time  there  are  in  the  process  of  erection  hundreds  of  school 


16  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

buildings  of  the  old  box-like  type  in  which  many  of  us  were 
housed  when  we  were  children.   > 

In  communities  where  the  "population  is  growing,  it  is 
essential  to  see  to  it  that  the  plan  of  the  new  schoolhouse 
allows  for  the  building  of  future  extensions.  One  of  the 
principal  reasons  why  the  old -type  square  school  buildings 
have  given  way  to  the  newer  L,  T,  H,  and  U  buildings  is, 
that  with  the  former  types  an  added  wing  usually  cut  off 
light  from  classrooms  in  the  older  part.  Modern  buildings 
are  planned  in  such  a  way  that  one  or  two  new  wings  may 
be  added  without  interfering  with  either  the  utility  or  exter- 
nal appearance  of  the  building. 

Plans  should  be  studied  also  from  the  point  of  view  of 
"wider  use"  or  community  service.  The  "socialized  school- 
house,"  as  it  is  frequently  called,  is  so  arranged  that  its 
auditorium,  library,  toilets,  and  gymnasiums  can  be  cut  off 
from  the  rest  of  the  building  and  opened  to  the  public  with- 
out allowing  access  to  classrooms  or  offices. 

Apportionment  of  space.  An  exceedingly  interesting  piece 
of  work  is  now  being  carried  on  by  the  "Committee  on 
Standardization  of  Schoolhouse  Design  and  Construction 
of  the  Department  of  School  Administration  of  the  National 
Education  Association."  Frank  Irving  Cooper,  of  Boston, 
one  of  the  leading  school  architects  in  the  United  States,  is 
chairman  of  this  committee,  and  the  other  four  members  are 
all  men  who  have  become  prominent  in  the  fields  of  school 
architecture,  hygiene,  and  administration.  The  committee  is 
making  a  careful  study  of  plans  for  modern  school  buildings, 
and  aims  eventually  to  publish  a  report,  first,  to  show  what 
are  the  standards  generally  accepted  for  schoolhouse  con- 
struction, and  second,  to  determine  what  plans  for  school 
buildings  should  include  and  what  relative  proportion  of  the 
total  cubic  contents  and  floor  areas  should  be  set  aside  for 
each  specified  use.   That  is,  the  committee  hopes  to  be  able 


THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  17 

to  furnish  suggestions  whereby  people  who  are  not  trained 
architects  may  be  able  to  judge  the  efficiency  and  economy 
of  space  utilization  in  plans  submitted  to  them. 

In  its  preliminary  bulletin  the  committee  points  out  the 
amazing  differences  in  cost  between  buildings  in  different 
cities  which  apparently  are  planned  to  accommodate  the 
same  number  of  children,  to  furnish  the  same  type  of  facili- 
ties, and  to  be  erected  of  the  same  materials.  It  also  points 
out  that  there  is  at  present  no  general  agreement  concerning 
the  number  and  sizes  of  rooms  required  in  elementary  or 
high-school  buildings.  Plans  differ  widely  even  where  prac- 
tically the  same  school  programs  are  being  carried  on. 
Through  careful  study  and  analysis  the  committee  hopes  to 
be  able,  in  the  near  future,  to  present  standards  based  on 
the  best  present  existing  practice. 

Unit  plans.  The  question  of  the  correct  apportionment  of 
space  has  within  the  past  several  years  led  to  the  dra wing-up 
of  many  different  schemes  for  showing  what  rooms  should 
be  included  in  school  buildings,  and  relatively  how  much 
space  should  be  given  to  each.  For  example,  the  Department 
of  Buildings  of  the  city  school  system  of  Pittsburgh,  Penn- 
sylvania, publishes  a  very  interesting  booklet  entitled  Pro- 
gram and  Details  of  Construction  and  Equipment  for  Grade 
Schools,  for  the  instruction  of  architects  who  wish  to  sub- 
mit plans.  The  regular  classroom  is  taken  as  the  unit  of 
space.  The  booklet  lists  all  the  rooms  which  must  be  in- 
cluded in  the  school,  together  with  certain  other  rooms 
which,  while  not  essential,  are  desired.  The  list  is  shown 
on  page  18. 

An  exceedingly  interesting  development  of  the  unit  plan 
is  that  designed  by  Mr.  W.  R.  McCornack,  architect  for 
the  Cleveland  school  system.  Mr.  McCornack  uses  the 
classroom  as  his  unit,  and  plans  his  building  much  on  the 
idea  of  the  sectional  bookcase  or  filing  cabinet.   Across  one 


18 


HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 


16  classrooms 
1  ungraded  room 


kindergarten  room 
kindergarten  wardrobe 
kindergarten  toilet 
kindergarten  workroom 

sewing-room 

wardrobe  and  locker-room 

fitting-room 

model  bedroom  (desired)  . 


Household 
economy    «, 


Industrial 
training 


16  units 
\  unit 

\\  units 


demonstration  room 

domestic-science  room 

wardrobe  and  locker-room 

pantry 

model  dining-room  (desired) 

bench-room 

wardrobe  and  locker-room 

storage-room 

demonstration-room 

drafting-room 

wardrobe  and  locker-room 

storage-room 

voting-rooms 

general  office 
private  office 
book  storeroom 
physician's  room 
teachers'  room 
janitor's  supply-room 


1  assembly-room  (desired)  —  700  seating  capacity 

2  paved  play-yards,  each  11,000  square  feet 


\\  units 


\  unit 


\\  units 


1 

\\  units 

\  unit 

1  unit 

1  unit 

<    2  units 


1    .  ,  ,    j  f  Which  it  is  desired  should  have  areas 

,  f      »    i  ">  each  equal  to  two  classrooms  or  greater 

1  boys  play-room  i  .?       .,  , ,  6 

r  I  areas  if  available 


THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  19 

end  of  the  classroom  is  the  wardrobe,  with  accommodations 
for  eighty  pupils,  so  that  the  room  may  be  used  by  two 
alternating  platoons,  should  the  double  platoon  plan  of 
organization  be  adopted.  By  removing  the  wardrobe  parti- 
tion the  room  becomes  standard  size  for  manual  training, 
cooking,  or  other  similar  classes.  Two  such  rooms,  with  the 
second  divided  in  half,  furnish  a  kindergarten  and  kinder- 
garten workroom.  Four  rooms  in  sets  of  two  each  may  be 
turned  into  small  gymnasiums  for  separate  classes  of  boys 
and  girls.  Four  rooms  together  are  equal  in  size  to  an  audi- 
torium. 

In  a  building  constructed  in  this  way  all  supports  are 
above  one  another  running  straight  from  foundation  to  roof. 
Pipes  for  plumbing  and  vacuum  cleaning  are  carried  in 
vertical  lines,  practically  without  a  bend.  Materials  may  be 
purchased  in  standard  lengths,  and  in  lots  large  enough  to 
supply  several  buildings  at  once.  Alterations  to  allow  for 
administrative  changes  can  be  made  with  ease  and  rapid- 
ity. The  unit  plan,  as  Mr.  McCornack  has  worked  it 
out,  promises  to  reduce  building  costs  and  provide  a  much 
more  satisfactory  type  of  building  than  most  of  those  now 
in  use. 

Height  of  building.  Ideally  the  school  building  should 
never  be  more  than  two  stories  high.  Actually,  in  a  few  of 
the  larger  cities,  land  is  so  expensive  that  large  areas  cannot 
be  secured  for  school  purposes.  In  such  cases  the  tall  build- 
ing, equipped  with  elevators,  with  its  playgrounds  on  the 
roof,  seems  to  be  an  unfortunate  necessity.  Probably  even 
in  such  cities  the  time  will  come  when  public  schools  will  be 
built  in  the  suburbs,  with  plenty  of  open  spaces,  and  chil- 
dren will  be  transported  to  and  from  the  city  at  public 
expense.  Such  a  plan  is  sure  to  meet  with  opposition  from 
parents  and  teachers  at  first,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  open-air 
schools,  medical  inspection,  and  the  like,  such  opposition 


20  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

will  gradually  break  down  as  the  plan  is  tried  and  proves 
to  be  of  value. 

In  cities  where  land  values  are  not  exorbitant,  nothing 
over  two  stories  should  be  erected.  Tall  buildings  mean  ex- 
cessive climbing  of  stairs  for  children  and  teachers.  Where 
the  toilets  are  located  in  the  basement  such  climbing  becomes 
an  additional  burden.  In  addition,  unless  the  school  is  com- 
pletely fireproof,  the  hazard  of  fire  and  panic  is  considerably 
more  than  doubled  for  every  additional  story.  If  a  building 
is  absolutely  fireproof,  —  which  means  steel  and  concrete 
construction,  metal  doors,  window-sills,  and  trim,  non-in- 
flammable floor  coverings,  and  metal  furniture,  —  and  is 
supplied  with  thoroughly  adequate  and  efficient  elevator 
service,  it  may  properly  be  as  high  as  the  ordinary  office 
building;  but  there  are  very  few  schools  in  the  country 
which  even  approach  this  standard. 

Orientation.  The  building  should  be  placed  on  the  land  in 
such  a  way  that  all  its  classrooms  will  receive  light  either 
from  the  east  or  the  west.  North  light  is  not  desirable  be- 
cause, although  it  is  easy  and  pleasant  to  work  by,  windows 
facing  in  that  direction  never  receive  direct  sunlight.  It 
has  been  shown  by  recent  experiments  that  contagious  dis- 
eases are  not  spread  by  germs  flying  like  small  insects 
through  the  air,  but  by  direct  carriers  —  flies,  mosquitoes, 
food,  drink,  particles  of  clothing,  or  mucus.  Colds  seem  to 
be  spread  among  groups  of  people  through  minute  drops  of 
mucus  which  are  sprayed  into  the  air  when  the  sufferer 
coughs  or  sneezes.  If  such  contagion  is  to  be  avoided  the 
safest  preventive  measure  is  to  flood  with  sunshine  every 
corner  of  the  rooms  where  people  gather,  and  so  render  these 
drops  of  mucus  sterile.  Every  classroom  should  be  flooded 
with  sunshine  once  every  day. 

South  rooms,  on  the  other  hand,  are  undesirable  because 
they  are  apt  to  receive  direct  sunlight  all  day  long,  which 


THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  21 

makes  rooms  uncomfortably  hot  in  summer  and  renders  the 
lighting  problem  difficult.  Rooms  facing  east  receive  the 
morning  sun,  but  are  relieved  of  its  direct  rays  in  the  after- 
noon. Rooms  facing  west  receive  indirect  light  in  the 
morning  and  direct  light  in  the  afternoon.  Either  east  or 
west  lighting  is  excellent  for  schoolrooms,  although  perhaps 
the  east  is  slightly  preferable.  Many  architects  recommend 
placing  the  school  building  so  that  its  sides  face  halfway 
between  the  points  of  the  compass. 

Foundations.  From  the  point  of  view  of  school  hygiene, 
few  things  are  more  important  than  the  method  of  building 
the  foundation  for  a  school  building.  An  insufficient  or  im- 
properly built  foundation  is  apt,  through  capillary  attrac- 
tion, to  produce  unhygienic  conditions  in  the  schoolroom. 
Ground  damp  creeps  through  the  walls  and  introduces  cold, 
clammy  air  and  the  peculiar  odor  so  often  connected  with 
the  cellar  of  the  country  farmhouse.  Blackboards  sweat  and 
buckle,  plaster  falls,  floors  and  wooden  supports  rot  and 
gradually  fall  apart.  Dr.  Dresslar,  in  his  American  School- 
houses,  tells  of  a  brick  building  built  on  ground  where  the 
ground  water  line  was  kept  at  about  six  feet  from  the  surface 
by  the  irrigation  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  founda- 
tion walls  were  constructed  of  unglazed  brick,  and  no  damp 
proofing  had  been  used.  In  six  years,  he  says,  and  almost 
before  the  danger  was  discovered,  the  timbers  supporting 
the  floors  had  so  decayed  that  the  whole  of  the  lower  floor 
was  ready  to  drop  into  the  basement.  The  building  was  con- 
demned, and  had  to  be  reconstructed  at  large  expense. 

Dresslar  recommends  concrete  foundations,  with  wide 
footings.  The  outside  of  the  foundation  wall  below  the  sur- 
face should  be  coated  with  boiling  tar  or  asphaltum  before 
the  excavation  is  filled.  A  short  distance  above  the  surface 
there  should  be  embedded  in  the  walls  a  layer  of  hard 
asphaltum  or  a  thin  layer  of  slate  set  in  rich  fine  cement 


22  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

mortar.  Even  a  layer  of  tarred  paper  on  top  of  the  wall  will 
be  of  service  for  several  years.  Perhaps  the  best  method  of 
damp-proofing  foundations  is  to  insert  within  the  wall  a 
thin  layer  of  1  to  1  cement. 

A  very  effective,  although  considerably  more  expensive, 
method  of  protecting  against  ground  water  and  ground 
damp  is  to  build  a  four-inch  wall  of  brick  all  around,  with  a 
one-inch  space  between  it  and  the  main  foundation  wall, 
and  then  to  fill  the  intervening  space  with  a  one-inch  vertical 
layer  of  tar.  A  one-inch  layer  of  tar,  covered  with  tar  paper, 
is  frequently  placed  beneath  the  concrete  step  and  under- 
neath the  basement  floor.  While  a  simple  outer  coating  of 
tar  with  a  damp-proof  layer  within  the  wall  above  the  grade 
line  will  usually  be  sufficient  for  dry  locations,  the  more 
elaborate  method  just  described  should  be  employed  wher- 
ever the  ground  is  wet. 

Unless  the  schoolhouse  has  been  located  on  the  top  of  a 
hill,  with  land  sloping  away  in  all  directions,  —  and  this  is 
rarely  a  wise  location,  —  it  is  essential  that  a  ground  drain 
be  built  five  or  six  feet  outside  the  foundation  walls  and 
below  the  level  of  the  foundation  base.  This  drain  should  be 
constructed  of  large  earthen  tiles,  well  burned,  such  as  are 
commonly  used  for  draining  land.  Joints  should  be  left 
slightly  open  at  the  under  side,  and  covered  for  some  inches 
with  coarse  gravel  or  broken  stone  in  order  to  prevent  loose 
earth  from  entering  and  clogging  the  drain.  The  drain  may 
either  come  to  the  surface  at  a  point  well  away  from  the 
building,  where  the  water  cannot  flow  back,  or  end  in  a 
trap. 

Such  a  ground  drain  is  simple  in  construction,  so  that 
it  can  be  laid  by  the  ordinary  workman.  It  costs  very  little, 
and  will  frequently  prevent  serious  trouble  later. 

All  buildings  should  be  supplied  with  strong,  durable 
eaves  gutters  and  drain  pipes  from  the  roof,  to  prevent 


THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  23 

water  dripping  off  the  eaves  from  soaking  into  the  ground 
or  drenching  the  upper  part  of  the  foundation  walls.  Such 
pipes  should  be  large  and  numerous  enough  to  care  for  all 
the  roof  drainage.  Care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  clogging 
at  the  top  by  leaves  or  twigs.  The  down  pipes  should  empty 
into  the  earthen  drains  outside  the  foundation  walls  through 
cemented  sewer  tile,  and  the  water  be  carried  off  along 
with  the  ground  water. 

Old  buildings  with  improperly  constructed  foundations 
offer  a  peculiarly  difficult  problem.  In  some  cases  it  is  possi- 
ble to  expose  the  foundation  wall  below  the  grade  line,  coat 
it  with  tar  or  asphaltum,  and  build  a  drain  below  the  founda- 
tion level.  Extra  coating  of  cement  on  the  inside  is  usually 
of  some  slight  value.  Frequently,  however,  a  poorly  con- 
structed foundation  cannot  be  remedied,  and  the  building 
must  either  be  used  in  spite  of  dangerously  unhygienic 
conditions  or  else  be  abandoned. 

Basements.  It  is  desirable  that  all  schools  be  constructed 
with  basements.  This  is  the  common  practice  in  cities,  but 
rural  districts  have  usually  felt  that  a  cellar  or  basement  was 
an  unnecessary  added  expense.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  foun- 
dations have  been  laid  of  such  a  nature  that  the  building  is 
properly  protected  from  ground  damp,  the  added  expense 
of  excavating  cellar  space  and  laying  a  floor  of  asphaltum 
or  cement,  based  on  tar,  is  inconsiderable  when  compared 
with  the  increased  usefulness  of  the  building  so  equipped. 
Basements  are  the  best  places  for  heating  and  ventilating 
plants.  In  spite  of  certain  State  laws  which  assume  the  con- 
trary, heat  can  be  carried  to  classrooms  more  economically 
from  the  basement  than  from  points  outside  the  building, 
and  if  proper  precautions  are  taken  the  fire  hazard  is  re- 
moved. In  rural  districts  a  furnace  in  the  basement  furnishes 
more  satisfactory  heat  than  a  jacketed  stove  within  the 
schoolroom;  and  basement  space  may  well  be  used  for  an 


24  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

acetylene  lighting  plant,  small  gasoline  pump,  and  other 
equipment. 

A  basement  provides  the  best  place  for  indoor  playrooms, 
lavatories,  shower  baths,  etc.  It  gives  ample  space  for  the 
necessary  plumbing,  and  yet  makes  these  facilities  easily 
accessible  to  the  pupils  within  the  building.  Special  rooms 
for  manual  training,  domestic  science,  etc.,  can  frequently 
be  located  in  the  basement,  and  for  rural  schools  this 
is  often  the  cheapest  way  satisfactorily  to  provide  such 
equipment. 

It  is  generally  the  custom  to  place  the  main  toilet-rooms 
in  the  basement,  together  with  smaller  rooms  on  each  floor. 
From  the  hygienic  point  of  view  this  is  a  desirable  custom, 
because,  if  care  is  used  in  planning  the  basement  and  in- 
stalling the  apparatus,  it  is  possible  to  provide  for  thorough 
sanitation  by  connection  with  the  heating  and  ventilating 
plant. 

Basements  should  be  at  least  ten  feet  high,  with  seven 
feet  above  the  grade  line.  If  the  ceilings  are  any  lower  there 
will  be  a  tendency  to  use  air  ducts  which  are  too  small  and 
to  bend  them  at  acute  angles.  This  will  result  in  continued 
trouble  with  the  heating  and  ventilating  plant. 

A  frequent  error  in  planning  basements  is  to  provide  too 
few  windows.  Consequently  toilet-rooms,  corridors,  baths, 
etc.,  are  poorly  lighted;  and  unhygienic  conditions  are  fre- 
quently established  which  are  difficult  to  remedy.  Every 
effort  should  be  made  to  flood  basement  rooms  with  abun- 
dant sunshine.  Where  there  are  sufficient  funds  it  is  well  to 
line  the  walls  with  glazed  brick  or  tile,  in  light  colors.  This 
surface  will  not  take  pencil  marks  easily,  is  quickly  cleaned, 
and  reflects  light. 

In  old  buildings  it  is  frequently  possible  to  add  one  or  more 
windows  in  the  basement  wall  without  excessive  cost.  The 
floor  of  the  basement  may  sometimes  be  lowered,  but,  as  in 


THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  25 

the  older  buildings  basements  are  frequently  already  too 
far  below  the  grade  line,  deepening  them  still  further  is 
rarely  advisable.  Damp  floors  may  frequently  be  rendered 
impervious  to  water  by  adding  a  thin  layer  of  asphaltum. 
Solid  walls  may  sometimes  be  replaced  by  piers  supporting 
heavy  iron  cross-beams,  or  by  arches  made  of  brick  or  con- 
crete, and  more  space  and  light  may  be  thus  provided. 
Occasionally  better  lighting  may  be  secured  by  digging  back 
the  earth  for  three  or  four  feet  outside  the  foundation  wall, 
and  deepening  the  windows.  Painting  or  whitewashing  the 
inner  walls  will  help  in  utilizing  all  the  light  which  is  allowed 
to  enter.  When  structural  changes  are  made  the  work  should 
be  under  the  direction  of  an  experienced  person,  and  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  weaken  the  supports  of  the  super- 
structure. 

Roofs.  The  flat  roof  is  rapidly  coming  into  favor,  and  has 
shown  itself  of  such  value  that  for  all  larger  buildings,  at 
least,  it  should  be  adopted  unless  excellent  reasons  can  be 
furnished  in  favor  of  the  older  pitched  roof.  The  pitched 
roof  seems  to  have  originated  because  of  the  necessity  for 
getting  rid  of  huge  masses  of  snow,  which  otherwise  would 
have  caused  the  roof  timbers  to  give  way.  Under  present 
methods  of  construction,  however,  there  are  very  few  places 
in  the  United  States  where  a  flat  roof  would  not  be  strong 
enough  to  bear  the  weight  of  snow  likely  to  fall  upon  it. 
Pitched  roofs  are  expensive  to  build.  Attics  are  usually  of 
little  use  except  as  storerooms,  and  their  large,  unbroken 
spaces  are  a  constant  fire  menace.  The  flat  roof  can  be  built 
more  economically,  it  wastes  less  space,  can  often  be  utilized 
as  an  outdoor  playground  or  gymnasium,  and  is  attractive 
in  appearance.  The  argument  that  pitched  roofs  are  neces- 
sary in  order  to  protect  the  rooms  below  from  excessive  heat 
is  overcome  by  a  study  of  the  architecture  in  tropical  coun- 
tries, where  pitched  roofs  are  practically  unknown.    From 


26  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

the  point  of  view  of  school  hygiene  the  flat  roof  has  much 
to  recommend  it. 

Floors  and  floor  coverings.  All  floors  should  be  fireproof, 
soundproof,  and  impervious  to  draughts.  Wooden  floors 
should  be  double,  the  lower  layer  being  made  of  rough 
boards,  rather  narrow,  well  seasoned,  and  set  together  as 
closely  as  may  be.  They  should  be  laid  diagonally  upon 
the  floor  joists,  and  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  deadening 
material.  The  ground  floor  should  not  only  deaden  sound, 
but  also  exclude  damp  air  rising  from  the  basement.  Tarred 
paper  keeps  out  cellar  air,  but  easily  catches  fire.  Asbestos 
board,  building  felt,  and  mineral  wool  are  all  slow  to  burn, 
impermeable,  and  good  sound-deadeners.  In  buildings  of 
fireproof  construction  a  layer  of  cement  below  the  floor 
surface  effectively  deadens  sound. 

For  wooden  floors  a  second  layer  of  boards  is  laid  above 
the  thick  layer  of  deadening  material.  The  best  material 
for  the  upper  boards  is  oak,  maple  probably  ranks  next, 
and  hard  pine  ranks  third  in  desirability.  Soft  pine  should 
never  be  used  because  it  is  soft,  highly  inflammable,  splin- 
ters readily,  catches  and  holds  dirt,  and  wears  out  very 
rapidly.  Surface  boards  should  be  not  more  than  two  and 
a  half  inches  wide,  straight  grain,  free  from  pitch,  knot-holes, 
or  other  defects,  and  well  grooved  so  that  they  fit  closely 
together.  Care  should  be  taken  that  not  a  board  is  used 
which  shows  a  defect,  because  once  laid  it  is  sure  to  cause 
trouble  by  slivering,  holding  dirt,  cracking  or  drawing  apart 
from  its  fellows,  staining,  and  the  like.  Careless  work  in 
laying  floors  is  frequently  responsible  for  unhygienic  condi- 
tions later.  Blind  nailing  is  usually  recommended,  but  ordi- 
nary nailing  will  prove  satisfactory  if  carefully  done.  After 
floors  are  laid  they  should  be  smoothed  to  an  even  surface, 
the  pores  of  the  wood  should  be  filled  with  hot  linseed  oil 
well  rubbed  in,  and  after  thorough  drying  the  whole  surface 


THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  27 

should  be  waxed.    Floors  laid  in  this  manner  will  last  for 
years,  and  are  easily  cleaned. 

There  are  many  prepared  floor  coverings  which  are  now 
being  subjected  to  experiment,  such  as  cork,  sawdust,  rub- 
ber, fiber,  and  other  materials  in  varied  combinations.  One 
of  the  most  satisfactory  floor  coverings  for  rooms,  such  as 
kindergartens,  special  rooms,  or  classrooms,  where  movable 
furniture  is  used,  is  a  good  quality  of  battleship  linoleum, 
carefully  laid  and  treated  with  a  good  preservative.  This  is 
rather  expensive,  but  when  properly  prepared  furnishes  a 
smooth  surface,  pleasant  in  color,  and  easily  cleaned.  It  is 
soundproof,  and  a  poor  conductor  of  heat.  Where  children 
are  allowed  to  work  seated  on  the  floo^linoleum  is  an  excel- 
lent covering. 

The  floors  of  corridors  and  basements  should  be  of  some 
material  which  can  readily  be  cleaned.  Well-laid  wooden 
floors  carefully  oiled  are  attractive  in  appearance,  but  unless 
the  oil  is  thin  and  well  rubbed  in  they  quickly  show  foot- 
marks and  require  constant  cleaning.  Wooden  floors  which 
are  cleaned  by  scrubbing  are  highly  unsatisfactory,  and 
should  never  be  used  for  school  corridors.  Asphaltum  makes 
a  good  smooth  surface,  is  fireproof,  noise-deadening,  and 
impervious  to  water.  It  is  rather  dark,  and  not  particularly 
ornamental  in  appearance,  but  gives  excellent  service. 
Cement  has  most  of  the  satisfactory  elements  of  asphaltum, 
except  that  it  is  somewhat  slower  in  drying  after  having  been 
washed,  and  the  surface  gives  off  a  fine  dust  when  much 
used.  One  of  the  most  popular  forms  of  floor  covering  for 
corridors  is  made  by  embedding  small  pieces  of  marble  in 
cement.  These  "terrazzo"  floors,  so  called,  furnish  a  water- 
proof surface,  are  light-colored  and  attractive. 

The  importance  of  well-constructed  double  floors  is  fre- 
quently unappreciated  by  people  in  country  districts.  Of 
the  one  hundred  and  nine  one-teacher  rural  schools  in  New 


g8  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

York,  New  Jersey,  Connecticut,  Vermont,  and  Maryland 
studied,  in  1913,  by  the  American  Medical  Association  and 
the  National  Council  of  Education,  over  one  third  had  floors 
consisting  of  single  boards  laid  on  wooden  joists,  through 
which  ground  air,  ground  damp,  and  strong  cold  draughts 
poured  in  around  the  feet  of  teacher  and  children.  Of  the 
entire  one  hundred  and  nine,  only  one  had  floors  lined  with 
deadening  material.  In  studying  the  reports  of  medical  in- 
spection, students  are  frequently  shocked  to  find  that  the 
city  child  is  healthier  and  stronger  than  his  country  brother. 
Rural  children  are  exposed  constantly  to  dangers  from  which 
city  children  are  protected.  It  is  probably  true  that  much 
of  the  tuberculosis,  catarrh,  pneumonia,  and  deafness  of 
country  people  has  been  caused  or  accelerated  by  years  of 
living  in  rooms  with  cold,  draughty  floors.  The  cost  of  pro- 
viding adequate  protection  against  this  very  real  peril  is 
small  compared  with  the  loss  of  physical  efficiency  which  is 
likely  to  result  from  its  neglect. 

Walls.  School  walls  should  be  easily  cleaned  and  of  smooth 
surface,  so  that  they  will  not  catch  dust.  Plaster,  wood 
pulp,  cement,  tile,  terrazzo,  or  brick  may  all  be  used  as  wall 
surface,  providing  the  cracks  are  eliminated,  the  whole  pol- 
ished to  secure  a  smooth  facing,  and  paint  or  stain  applied 
so  that  walls  are  given  the  proper  color.  Wood  gives  a  good 
effect  if  carefully  set,  but  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  cracks 
and  panels,  and  to  eliminate  projections  which  would  be 
likely  to  catch  dust.  Dark  wood  is  attractive  in  appearance, 
but  should  not  be  used  above  the  lower  line  of  the  black- 
board, because  it  absorbs  light.  Various  types  of  composi- 
tion board  are  rapidly  coming  into  use  and  are  especially 
appropriate  in  the  less  expensive  types  of  rural  schoolhouses. 
Burlap,  tapestry,  or  wall-paper  should  not  be  used  for 
schoolroom  walls,  because  the  first  two  catch  dust,  and  all 
are  difficult  to  clean.  No  matter  what  material  is  used,  care 


THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  29 

should  be  taken  to  procure  a  dull  rather  than  a  glazed  finish, 
in  order  that  reflections  may  not  interfere  with  the  general 
lighting  scheme. 

Doors.  The  doors  of  the  schoolroom  should  be  without 
moulding  or  panels,  and  should  depend  for  their  beauty  upon 
the  grain  of  wood  or  the  sheen  of  metal.  Everything  should 
be  eliminated  which  in  any  way  catches  dust.  The  carpet 
strip  at  the  entrance  is  entirely  unnecessary  if  care  is  taken 
in  hanging  the  door.  It  catches  little  piles  of  dust  during 
sweeping,  and  should  be  done  away  with.  Transoms  above 
the  door  were  originally  intended  to  aid  in  securing  good 
ventilation.  With  modern  plenum  systems  the  transom  is 
apt  to  make  trouble  by  causing  extra  draughts;  and,  even 
with  systems  of  window  ventilation,  it  seems  undesirable  to 
admit  air  from  the  central  hallway.  Transoms  are  of  more 
hindrance  than  help  in  ventilating.  They  are  often  out  of 
order,  and  usually  shockingly  dirty.  Dust  gathers  on  the 
slanted  surface  and  cannot  be  removed  by  the  ordinary 
broom. 

Transoms,  panels,  and  carpet  strips  are  all  remnants  of  an 
earlier  and  less  hygienic  age;  and  should  be  discarded. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Draw  a  plan  of  an  old-type  one-room  rural-school  building,  with 
windows  on  three  sides,  stove  in  center,  platform  at  front,  with  an 
entrance  on  each  side  of  it  leading  into  front  hall.  Show  what  changes 
should  be  made  to  improve  the  building,  and  calculate  approximate 
expense. 

2.  What,  if  any,  difference  should  be  made  between  the  orientation  of 
school  buildings  where  there  is  a  one-session  day  and  of  those  where 
there  is  a  two-session  day?  Between  high,  grammar,  primary,  and 
kindergarten  buildings? 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  erecting  school  build- 
ings with  the  corners  facing  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the  compass? 

4.  Under  what  circumstances  is  it  justifiable  to  build  a  rural  school  on 
wooden  piles,  without  cellar  or  foundation  walls? 

5.  Which  is  better,  in  cases  of  overcrowded  schools,  to  place  children 


30  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

in  basement  rooms,  attic  rooms,  portable  buildings,  or  increase  the 
size  of  classes  in  regular  classrooms  ?   What  is  usually  done,  and  why? 

6.  When  an  addition  is  to  be  made  to  an  old-type  school,  with  two-sided 
lighting,  pitched  roof,  etc.,  how  far  should  the  external  architecture 
of  the  new  building  correspond  with  that  of  the  old? 

7.  Compare  the  relative  advantages  of  cork,  rubber,  and  linoleum  as 
floor  coverings. 

8.  Which  is  better  for  your  community,  a  group  of  small  buildings,  or 
one  large  one?   Why? 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

American  School  Board  Journal.   Bruce  Publishing  Company,  Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin. 

Reproduces  plans  of  buildings  now  being  erected.   Full  of  valuable  suggestions. 

Bruce,  W.  G.   School  Architecture.    (Milwaukee,  1910.) 

Excellent  little  handbook,  although  somewhat  out  of  date  in  a  few  particulars. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.    American  Schoolhouses.  United   States  Bureau  of 
Education,  Bulletin  no.  5.  (1910.) 
Especially  useful  in  showing  different  plans  and  discussing  their  relative  advantages. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.    School  Hygiene.    The  Macmillan  Company,  New 
York.    (1913.) 

Valuable  reference  book. 

Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  Board  of  Education.   A  Million  a  Year.    (1916.) 

A  five-year  building  program,  including  a  discussion  of  policies  concerning  junior  high 
schools,  extending  the  normal  capacity  of  the  school  plant)  and  the  establishment  ol 
normal  distances  for  the  location  of  school  buildings. 

Monroe,  Paul.  Cyclopedia  of  Education.   The  Macmillan  Company,  New 
York.    (1911-13.) 

One  of  the  most  useful  reference  books  for  the  student  of  education.  Contains  articles 
of  value  on  immensely  wide  variety  of  subjects,  and  furnishes  a  brief  but  carefully 
selected  bibliography  with  each. 

N.E.A.  Committee  on  Standardization  of  Schoolhouse  Design  and  Con- 
struction. Frank  Irving  Cooper,  Cornhill,  Boston,  Chairman. 

Reports  to  be  published.  Will  probably  be  of  considerable  assistance  to  schoolmen 
who  face  the  building  problem. 

See  also  various  State  laws,  and  publications  of  State  and  local  school 
authorities  concerning  building  requirements. 


CHAPTER  HI 

ROOMS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING 

{  Classroom  dimensions.  The  traditional  classroom  con- 
templates forty-eight  children,  in  six  rows,  eight  in  a  row, 
sitting  one  behind  the  other,  silent  ana immovable,  reciting 
occasionally,  but  spending  much  of  their  time  in  listening 
to  the  teacher  talk.  We  are  gradually  changing  our  attitude 
toward  schooling  of  this  type.<Jn  the  school  of  the  future 
children  will  be  busy  doing  things,  not  hearing  about  them. 
Fixed  desks  will  disappear,  and  the  classroom  will  become 
a  workshop.  Children  will  work  in  groups,  moving  actively 
about,  and  cooperation  and  communication  will  be  culti- 
vated as  virtues  instead  of  being  repressed  as  cardinal  sins 
of  childhood.  When  that  time  comes,  our  architectural 
standards  will  undergo  profound  changes.  Perhaps  then  uni- 
lateral lighting  will  be  no  longer  necessary;  classrooms  may 
grow  very  much  larger  —  or  smaller;  desks  and  chairs  may 
be  of  many  different  kinds  within  the  one  room;  blackboards 
may  conceivably  disappear.  It  is  impossible  for  us  to  predict 
what  changes  will  come,  but  we  may  be  sure  that  schools 
will  be  very  different  from  the  best  of  those  we  now  are 
building. 

So  long,  however,  as  the  child  remains  assigned  to  the 
traditional  passivity  of  the  classroom,  the  architect  must 
provide  him  with  surroundings  as  comfortable  and  hygienic 
as  possible.  Rooms  must  be  small  enough  so  that  it  will  not 
be  easy  to  crowd  in  too  many  children.  The  length  of  the 
room  must  be  determined  by  the  distance  at  which  children 
in  the  back  rows  can  read  writing  on  the  blackboard,  and  can 
hear  and  be  heard.  Width  must  depend  upon  the  amount 


32  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

of  light  which  children  farthest  from  the  windows  receive; 
the  height  of  the  ceiling  must  be  that  which  provides  for  the 
best  lighting  and  ventilation,  while  at  the  same  time  neces- 
sitating the  least  exertion  in  climbing  stairs. 

It  is  generally  accepted  as  a  standard  that  each  child 
should  have  from  eighteen  to  twenty  square  feet  of  floor 
space,  and  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  air 
space.  Various  experiments  with  sight  and  hearing  have 
placed  twenty-nine  feet  as  about  the  greatest  distance  at 
which  letters  one  and  a  half  inches  high  can  be  comfortably 
read;  and  thirty  feet  as  the  greatest  distance  within  which 
the  ordinary  speaking  voice  can  be  easily  and  accurately 
understood.  About  twenty-nine  feet,  then,  is  the  greatest 
distance  at  which  any  child  should  be  seated  from  the  black- 
board. Add  three  feet  for  an  aisle  behind  the  last  row  of 
seats,  and  the  length  of  the  room  comes  to  thirty-two  feet. 

The  width  of  the  room  varies  with  the  intensity  of  out- 
door lighting.  Assuming  that  the  room  is  lighted  on  one 
side  only,  the  desk  farthest  from  the  window  should  have  as 
a  minimum  three  foot  candles  of  illumination.  In  countries 
well  toward  the  north,  such  as  Canada,  England,  Scandi- 
navia, Holland,  and  parts  of  Germany,  winter  days  are 
short,  and  the  light  of  early  morning  and  late  afternoon  is 
apt  to  be  dull  and  weak.  In  such  cases  a  room  one  and  a  half 
times  as  wide  as  it  is  high,  with  window  space  equal  to  one 
fourth  the  floor  space,  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  provide 
the  desired  amount  of  light  at  the  more  remote  desks.  In 
most  parts  of  the  United  States  a  width  not  more  than  twice 
the  height  will  give  the  same  results.  In  the  tropics,  or  on 
very  high  locations  with  low  horizon  lines,  rooms  even  wider 
may  be  permitted. 

Unless  the  horizon  line  is  very  high  or  the  light  badly 
obstructed,  rooms  should  not  be  over  twelve  and  one  half 
feet  from  floor  to  ceiling.  German  authorities  usually  recom- 


ROOMS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  33 

mend  thirteen  feet  or  more,  probably  because  of  the  lighting 
difficulty  encountered  in  northern  latitudes.  In  the  United 
States  for  a  room  thirty-two  feet  long,  twenty -four  feet 
wide,  and  twelve  and  one  half  feet  high,  five  windows  three 
and  a  half  feet  wide,  eight  feet  high,  and  coming  within  six 
inches  of  the  ceiling,  will  usually  furnish  sufficient  light. 

In  crowded  cities,  even  where  the  school  authorities  in- 
tend to  assign  no  more  than  forty  children  to  a  teacher,  it 
will  frequently  be  found  that  old  buildings,  in  which  rooms 
are  often  twenty-eight  feet  wide  or  more,  have  actually 
desks  and  chairs  provided  for  forty -eight  instead  of  forty 
children.  Because  of  their  too  generous  dimensions  the 
rooms  do  not  look  crowded,  and  it  seems  more  economical 
and  kinder  to  the  children  to  make  room  for  overflow  classes 
by  adding  a  few  extra  places  than  to  erect  portable  buildings 
or  use  basement  rooms.  So  long  as  extra  floor  space  is  avail- 
able, additional  seats  will  be  installed.  It  is  a  wise  plan  to 
make  the  rooms  in  new  buildings  so  narrow  that  any  num- 
ber beyond  forty  will  not  be  admitted  without  obvious 
crowding. 

High  ceilings.  Schoolhouses  in  this  country  were  fre- 
quently very  low,  with  small  windows  and  no  means  of 
ventilation.  As  a  reaction  against  such  conditions  the  pe- 
riod after  the  Civil  War  produced  buildings  with  ceilings  not 
infrequently  fifteen  or  sixteen  feet  high.  At  that  time 
emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  air 
the  schoolroom  held,  rather  than  upon  the  frequency  with 
which  it  was  changed.  Naturally,  if  air  was  thought  of  as 
being  stationary,  with  only  an  occasional  clearing,  it  was 
important  to  provide  as  much  space  as  possible  for  every 
child.  Modern  ventilation  demands  a  constantly  changing 
current  of  air.  If  air  changes  frequently  enough  the  actual 
cubic  content  of  the  room  is  held  to  be  of  comparatively 
little  importance.    In  the  older  buildings  windows  were  fre- 


34  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

quently  as  much  as  two,  three,  or  four  feet  below  the  ceiling, 
and  the  space  above  was  filled  with  a  mass  of  warm  dead  air 
which  had  risen  from  the  space  below  and  remained  un- 
changed. 

In  schools  depending  upon  window  ventilation,  where  the 
windows  come  to  within  six  inches  of  the  ceiling,  added  space 
may  be  of  value.  The  added  height  of  the  wall  increases 
somewhat  the  pressure  of  cold  air  from  without  upon  the 
warm  air  of  the  schoolroom,  and  thus  quickens  the  air 
current.  This  is  an  advantage  only  where  the  teacher  is 
skilled  in  operating  the  windows;  and  as  teachers  usually 
are  too  busy  or  forgetful  to  pay  much  attention  to  frequent 
ventilation,  the  advisability  of  installing  higher  ceilings  is 
questionable.  Moreover,  every  foot  added  to  the  ceiling 
height  increases  the  height  of  the  stairway.  If  the  reader 
will  visit  in  succession  several  of  the  old-type  tall  school 
buildings,  and  inspect  them  from  attic  to  basement,  he  will 
soon  appreciate  the  significance  of  the  added  foot.  The 
strain  of  such  stair-climbing  upon  adolescent  girls  is  fre- 
quently harmful. 

Avoiding  unnecessary  height  is  important  for  financial 
as  w^ell  as  hygienic  reasons.  Imagine  a  small  building  with 
say  three  thousand  square  feet  of  floor  space,  twenty -five 
feet  high,  costing  twenty  cents  a  cubic  foot.  The  total 
cost  of  the  building  will  be  $15,000.  Now,  if  the  height  of 
each  classroom  is  increased  by  one  foot,  two  feet  are  added 
to  the  total  height,  and  six  thousand  cubic  feet  to  the  cubic 
contents;  so  that  instead  of  costing  $15,000  the  building 
costs  $16,200.  That  is,  the  total  building  cost  has  been  in- 
creased by  about  nine  per  cent. 

For  elementary  schools,  then,  the  generally  accepted 
standard  for  regular  schoolrooms  is  twenty-four  or  twenty- 
five  feet  wide,  thirty -two  feet  long,  and  twelve  and  one  half 
feet  high.  It  may  occasionally  be  wise  to  adopt  other  meas- 


ROOMS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  35 

urements,  but  the  reasons  for  any  departure  from  the  fig- 
ures here  given  should  be  carefully  weighed.  If  forty  chil- 
dren occupy  such  a  standard  room,  each  will  receive  about 
nineteen  square  feet  of  floor  space  and  two  hundred  and 
forty  cubic  feet  of  air  space.  This  cubiture  is  slightly  below 
the  usual  amount  demanded,  but  with  a  good  system  for 
changing  air  and  keeping  it  in  motion  the  space  per  child 
will  be  found  ample. 

In  high  schools  where  there  are  elective  courses,  and 
classes  vary  greatly  in  size,  it  is  well  to  provide,  in  addition 
to  regular  classrooms  of  the  dimensions  just  noted,  a  number 
of  smaller  rooms  for  groups  of  ten  or  fifteen  students,  and  a 
few  large  rooms  for  lecture  purposes. 

Wardrobes.  It  was  not  until  after  the  close  of  the  Civil 
War  that  city  schools  were  regularly  built  with  special  space 
set  aside  for  the  hanging  of  outdoor  garments.  Even  at  the 
present  day  there  are  to  be  found  many  rural  schools  where 
no  such  provision  has  been  made.  If  special  coatrooms  are 
built  outside  each  classroom,  the  doors  should  open  into  the 
room  instead  of  into  the  hall,  because  in  this  way  the  ward- 
robe remains  under  full  control  of  the  teacher.  Frequently  a 
screen  is  erected  across  the  back  or  front  of  the  room,  faced 
with  blackboard  on  the  outer  side  and  fixtures  on  the  side  next 
the  wall.  A  new  method  now  being  widely  used,  and  very 
economical  of  floor  space,  is  the  wardrobe  sunk  in  the  wall 
just  deep  enough  to  hold  the  necessary  fixtures,  but  not  deep 
enough  to  allow  children  to  enter  the  aperture.  The  opening 
is  closed  by  sliding  panels.  Individual  metal  lockers  with 
patented  locks  are  rapidly  coming  into  favor,  especially  for 
high  schools  or  systems  where,  through  the  double-platoon 
plan,  two  sets  of  children  use  one  classroom.  Lockers  are 
usually  placed  in  halls  or  basements. 

No  matter  what  method  is  used  for  the  disposal  of  wraps, 
care  should  be  taken  first  to  see  that  some  system  of  special 


36  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

ventilation  is  installed  so  that  the  clothing  is  dried  and  aired 
without  allowing  foul  odors  to  escape  into  the  classroom. 
Secondly,  a  hook  for  hat  and  wraps,  shelf  for  lunch -basket, 
box  for  shoes  and  rubbers,  and  stand  for  umbrella  should  be 
provided  for  each  pupil,  and  arranged  in  such  a  way  that 
each  garment  is  separated  from  those  of  other  pupils.  The 
spread  of  head  lice  or  body  vermin  is  frequently  due  to  the 
careless  manner  in  which  hats  or  wraps  are  thrown  in  piles 
upon  available  chairs  or  window-sills;  and  it  is  frequently 
claimed  that  contagious  diseases  are  carried  in  the  same 
way.  Individual  lockers  prevent  all  danger  of  this  kind;  but 
with  proper  fixtures  the  ordinary  well-ventilated  wardrobe 
may  be  rendered  safe. 
^  Special  classrooms.  In  every  school  building  it  is  usually 
wise  to  plan  certain  rooms  which  shall  be  smaller  than  the 
regular  classrooms,  and  shall  be  used  either  for  small  recita- 
tion groups  or  for  ungraded  classes  of  fifteen  children  or  so. 
The  equipment  of  these  rooms  should  in  general  be  the  same 
as  that  provided  for,  regular  classrooms.  Frequently  mov- 
able furniture  is  desirable  here,  even  when  it  is  not  installed 
in  all  the  rooms  throughout  the  building.  Rooms  where 
classes  are  to  be  held  for  deaf,  crippled,  or  blind  children 
should  be  arranged  after  consultation  with  specialists.  In 
classrooms  intended  for  blind  or  partially  blind  children, 
for  example,  it  is  sometimes  desired  that  the  glass  in  the 
windows  be  amber-tinted  rather  than  clear.  In  classes  for 
the  deaf  special  lighting  in  the  front  of  the  room  is  necessary, 
in  order  that  the  children  may  watch  the  lip  movements  of 
the  teacher. 

The  sewing-room  should  be  so  planned  that  an  abundance 
of  clear  light  is  available  during  school  hours,  without  direct 
sunlight  entering  the  room.  Where  sewing-rooms  are  to  be 
used  for  only  a  short  period  each  day  by  any  given  class,  it  is 
permissible  to  arrange  them  so  that  they  will  receive  north 


ROOMS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  37 

light.  Art  studios  should  also  be  arranged  so  that  their  light 
will  come  from  the  north. 

All  laboratories  for  cooking,  chemistry,  physics,  and  the 
like  should  be  made  thoroughly  fireproof.  Both  ceiling  and 
floor  should  be  of  fireproof  material,  and  wherever  possible 
separate  exits  leading  directly  outdoors  should  be  provided 
for  these  rooms.  In  cooking-rooms  special  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  storage  of  fuel  for  the  ranges.  It  is  not  unusual 
to  discover  piles  of  coal  in  the  attic,  under  wooden  beams 
which  are  entirely  unprotected.  Coal  and  wood  which  are 
needed  for  classroom  purposes  should  be  stored  in  metal- 
lined  containers  kept  carefully  closed.  Special  ventilating 
stacks,  with  exhaust  fans  or  other  means  of  rapidly  changing 
the  air,  should  be  installed  in  all  cooking  and  chemical 
laboratories,  so  that  unpleasant  odors  may  be  removed 
speedily  from  the  building. 

Manual-training  rooms  are  usually  situated  in  the  base- 
ments of  the  newer  schools.  Care  should  be  taken  to  supply 
them  with  a  plentiful  light.  It  is  usually  true  that  basement 
classrooms,  even  in  new  and  carefully  planned  buildings, 
receive  an  insufficient  amount  of  light.  The  ceiling,  walls, 
and  floor  of  the  manual-training  room  should  be  made  fire- 
proof, and  a  fireproof  storeroom  should  be  attached  where 
lumber  and  inflammable  materials  may  be  kept. 

Kindergarten.  The  kindergarten  should  be  situated  on 
the  first  floor  of  the  school  building  and  should  be  provided 
with  a  separate  entrance,  so  that  kindergarten  children  may 
go  directly  outdoors  without  walking  through  the  other 
parts  of  the  building.  The  kindergarten  should  include  one 
large  room,  and  one  or  two  smaller  rooms  adjoining.  These 
rooms  should  be  so  situated  as  to  receive  direct  sunlight 
during  kindergarten  hours.  In  the  regular  classrooms,  where 
children  are  obliged  to  sit  still,  direct  sunlight  is  undesirable 
because  it  shines  directly  into  the  eyes  and  causes  eye- 


38  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

strain.  In  kindergartens,  where  little  eye  work  is  carried  on 
and  where  children  are  allowed  to  move  about  freely,  direct 
sunlight  is  probably  desirable. 

A  large  cupboard  should  be  installed  in  which  kinder- 
garten materials  may  be  stored.  There  should  also  be  a  sep- 
arate toilet  and  washroom  as  part  of  the  kindergarten  suite, 
so  that  the  little  children  will  not  have  to  be  sent  downstairs 
to  the  regular  toilets.  The  fixtures  in  the  kindergarten  toilet- 
room  should  be  placed  very  near  the  floor,  so  that  children 
can  use  them  without  assistance.  The  floor  of  the  kinder- 
garten should  be  of  some  material  which  can  be  readily 
cleaned,  and  upon  which  children  can  sit  without  danger 
either  of  becoming  chilled  or  soiling  their  clothing.  Tile, 
terrazzo,  or  concrete  are  all  undesirable  because  they  are 
apt  to  chill  the  children.  Battleship  linoleum,  carefully  laid 
and  treated  with  a  preservative,  is  one  of  the  most  successful 
of  floor  coverings.  Cork  and  rubber  are  also  extensively 
used. 

Open-air  classrooms.  There  is  wide  diversity  in  the  loca- 
tion of  open-air  classes.  Some  are  held  on  the  roofs  of  build- 
ings, others  on  sheltered  balconies,  others  in  tents  or  shacks 
erected  beside  the  main  building,  and  still  others  in  the 
regular  classrooms  with  all  the  windows  removed  from  their 
frames.  Any  one  of  these  locations  may  be  used  successfully, 
providing  certain  precautions  are  taken.  Where  classes  are 
situated  on  the  roofs  of  city  school  buildings  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  install  elevator  service  in  order  to  take  the 
pupils  up  and  down,  because  climbing  several  flights  of  stairs 
is  not  a  desirable  exercise  for  frail  children.  Open-air  classes 
should  have  some  sort  of  shelter  provided  which  will  keep 
the  rain  and  snow  from  actually  falling  inside  the  classroom. 
Toilets  and  washrooms,  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  soap  and 
hot  water,  should  be  on  the  same  floor  and  close  at  hand. 
Unless  there  is  a  regular  school  lunch  in  the  main  building, 


ROOMS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  39 

it  is  well  to  have  a  small  kitchen  where  food  can  be  heated 
and  served.  On  one  side  a  large  storage  closet  is  desirable; 
for  the  portable  equipment  of  the  open-air  classroom  is  bulky 
and  difficult  to  handle.  Warm  blankets  and  sitting-out  bags 
should  be  provided  for  every  child,  and  these  must  be  kept  in 
a  dry  closet  at  night.  In  addition  to  tables,  chairs,  black- 
boards, lunch  equipment,  toothbrushes,  towels,  and  the  like, 
a  steamer  chair,  or,  preferably,  a  cot  bed  must  be  provided 
for  the  use  of  every  child. 

Auditoriums.  The  auditorium  should  be  located  on  the 
first  floor,  and  provided  with  separate  exits  leading  directly 
outdoors.  The  floor  should  slant  from  the  back  of  the  room 
toward  the  stage.  At  each  outside  entrance  there  should  be 
a  cloakroom  with  toilet-room  attached,  and  a  booth  where 
tickets  may  be  taken.  By  this  arrangement  the  auditorium 
may  be  used  for  meetings  of  adults  without  its  being  neces- 
sary for  them  to  go  through  the  main  parts  of  the  building. 
The  stage  should  be  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  easily  en- 
larged by  moving  the  scenery,  so  that  a  comparatively  large 
number  of  people  may  be  accommodated  upon  it.  It  is  usu- 
ally desirable  to  provide  simple  stage  equipment  for  lowering 
curtain,  arranging  scenery,  and  using  special  lighting.  On 
each  side  of  the  stage  should  be  a  small  room  which  can  be 
reached  without  going  through  the  main  auditorium.  A  cur- 
tain should  be  provided  on  which  stereopticon  pictures  can 
be  shown.  In  planning  to  use  the  stereopticon  the  laws  of 
the  particular  State  in  which  the  building  is  to  be  erected 
should  be  carefully  examined,  for  in  many  places  some  spe- 
cial regulation  has  been  passed  concerning  the  use  of  stereop- 
ticon or  moving-picture  machines  in  non-fireproof  or  partly 
fireproof  buildings. 

Where  the  auditorium  is  to  be  used  extensively  for  classes 
or  study,  careful  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  question  of 
lighting.    Frequently  the  most  effective  manner  of  lighting 


40  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

is  to  install  glass  in  the  ceiling  rather  than  at  the  sides.  Since 
it  is  not  customary  to  erect  other  classrooms  above  the  audi- 
torium, overhead  lighting  is  easily  secured  and  may  be  made 
very  effective.  Artificial  lights  should  be  installed  in  such  a 
way  that,  while  ample  illumination  is  secured,  the  source 
of  light  shall  not  be  visible  to  members  of  the  audience  who 
are  looking  toward  the  stage.  Indirect  or  semi-indirect 
methods  of  lighting  are  usually  desirable  for  auditoriums. 

The  gymnasium.  The  gymnasium  is  usually  located  either 
on  the  top  floor  or  else  in  the  basement  of  the  building.  The 
latter  is  probably  the  more  common  plan,  because  it  is  usu- 
ally easier  to  install  showers,  locker-rooms,  dressing-rooms, 
swimming-pool,  and  running-track  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
building.  Many  of  the  newer  schools,  instead  of  one  large 
gymnasium,  have  two  smaller  ones  for  separate  classes  of 
boys  and  girls,  so  that  two  groups  may  exercise  at  the  same 
time.  In  planning  the  gymnasium  special  care  should  be 
taken  to  provide  good  ventilation  and  a  plentiful  supply  of 
light. 

The  minimum  amount  of  floor  space  in  square  feet  should 
be  calculated  by  multiplying  the  number  of  children  in  the 
average  gymnasium  class  by  twenty.  Cement  floors  are 
commonly  found  in  gymnasiums,  but  they  are  undesirable 
because  they  are  too  cold  and  hard.  Moreover,  unless  espe- 
cially treated,  they  give  off  a  fine  gray  dust  which  rises  in  the 
air  when  classes  are  exercising.  Cork  and  rubber  preparations 
make  very  good  floors,  but  these  are  exceedingly  expensive, 
and  they  have  the  added  disadvantage  of  making  the  gym- 
nasium unavailable  for  dancing.  Probably  the  most  satis- 
factory floor  covering  is  of  carefully  selected  maple  board. 
Where  the  gymnasium  is  located  in  the  basement,  with  no 
other  rooms  beneath  it,  it  is  essential  that  if  wooden  floors 
are  used,  a  large  number  of  auger-holes  be  bored  through 
the  baseboard,  and  space  be  left  connecting  with  the  space 


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ROOMS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  43 

beneath  the  floor,  so  that  the  floor  may  be  well  ventilated 
and  dry  rot  prevented. 

Attached  to  the  gymnasium  there  should  be  two  small 
rooms,  one  for  storing  apparatus  and  the  other  for  the  use 
of  the  gymnasium  teacher  and  medical  inspector. 

Libraries.  To  an  increasing  and  encouraging  degree  the 
public  schools  are  becoming  branches  of  the  local  public 
libraries.  In  some  communities  a  shelf  in  each  classroom  is 
filled  with  library  books,  which  are  changed  twice  a  month. 
In  other  places  there  is  a  central  room,  holding  collections 
of  books  owned  by  the  school  and  other  books  lent  by  the 
library,  where  children  may  go  and  study  during  class  hours. 
Sometimes  these  rooms  are  open  in  the  evening,  and  children 
are  encouraged  to  do  their  studying  at  school  rather  than  at 
home.  In  a  few  cases  we  find  regular  library  rooms,  with 
trained  librarians  in  charge,  to  serve  the  needs,  not  only  of 
the  children  in  the  school  building,  but  of  the  people  in  the 
community  as  well.  This  latter  plan  is  so  rapidly  increasing 
in  favor  that  we  find  a  large  number  of  our  newest  school 
buildings  providing  library  rooms  for  community  service. 
These  rooms  are  necessarily  so  located  that  access  can  be 
had  to  them  without  entering  the  rest  of  the  building.  They 
are  usually  on  the  first  floor,  although  rooms  on  the  second 
floor  may  be  used  if  outside  stairways  lead  directly  to  them. 
Occasionally  the  library  is  established  in  a  wing  of  its  own, 
or  even,  in  some  cases,  in  a  small  outside  building,  so  that  it 
may  be  heated  properly  at  night  without  the  expense  of 
heating  the  rest  of  the  school  building  also. 

No  matter  how  simple  a  library  may  be,  there  should 
always  be  room  enough  for  children  to  sit  down  and  study  or 
read  without  having  to  take  the  books  away  from  the  room. 
A  plentiful  supply  of  light  should  be  admitted,  and  if  chairs 
are  movable  this  light  may  be  on  more  than  one  side  of  the 
building.    Overhead  lighting,  if  carefully  installed  so  that 


44  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

direct  rays  will  not  fall  through  the  glass,  is  frequently  found 
exceedingly  effective.  Tables  should  be  provided  on  which 
to  rest  books,  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  have  these 
tables  too  high.  The  library  tables  should  be  about  the  same 
height  as  the  desks  which  most  of  the  children  use.  This 
means  that  in  primary  schools  they  should  be  much  lower 
than  in  high  schools.  In  buildings  where  classes  of  different 
ages  are  accommodated,  tables  should  be  supplied  of  vary- 
ing sizes.  The  chairs  should  be  selected  in  much  the  same 
way;  different-sized  chairs  being  provided  for  different-sized 
children.  Care  should  be  provided  to  see  that  the  chair 
provides  proper  support  for  the  back  when  an  upright  posi- 
tion is  assumed.  Artificial  lights  carefully  placed  and  plenti- 
ful in  number  should  be  supplied  for  night  use. 

Lunchrooms.  Where  children  stay  at  school  during  the 
noon  hour,  or  where  penny  lunches  are  served  during  the 
morning  recess,  a  special  place  should  be  provided  for  serving 
and  eating  lunches.  The  lunchroom  should  be  quickly  and 
easily  accessible.  When  it  is  placed  on  the  top  floor  of  a 
building,  for  example,  attendance  will  be  much  less  than 
when  it  is  placed  in  the  basement  or  on  the  first  floor,  be- 
cause children  are  not  willing  to  climb  stairs,  unless  com- 
pelled to  do  so.  Where  large  numbers  are  to  be  served, 
direct  exits  should  be  provided  so  that  children  can  reach 
the  playground  without  loss  of  time. 

The  lunchroom  may  often  be  planned  so  that  during  hours 
of  the  day  when  lunches  are  not  being  served  it  may  be 
utilized  for  other  purposes.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
lunchrooms  in  the  basement  playroom  or  in  large  corridors. 
In  some  cases  the  lunchroom  is  in  a  large  first-floor  room 
which  is  also  used  by  regular  study  classes.  Since  the  room 
is  already  equipped  with  table  and  chairs,  this  is  probably  a 
good  arrangement,  especially  if  such  a  room  is  made  to  open 
off  the  main  library  and  if  it  is  properly  cleaned  after  each 


ROOMS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  45 

meal.  The  lunchroom  should  be  well  lighted  and  should  be 
provided  with  special  ventilation.  It  should  be  easily  accessi- 
ble from  outdoors  and  from  the  rest  of  the  building.  If  possi- 
ble, chairs  and  tables  should  be  provided  for  the  children, 
but  where  space  is  inadequate,  long  settees,  or,  better  still, 
movable  chairs  with  one  broad  arm,  should  be  provided  so 
that  the  children  can  sit  down  while  they  eat. 

The  kitchen  and  serving-room  should  open  off  one  end  of 
the  main  dining-room.  Counters  or  long  tables  should  be 
provided  on  which  to  display  food  for  sale.  A  ticket  booth 
should  stand  near  the  entrance,  and  it  is  also  usually  de- 
sirable to  have  an  aisle  railed  off  to  prevent  children  from 
coming  in  in  groups.  A  clear  passage  should  also  be  left 
through  which  soiled  dishes  may  be  carried  to  the  washing- 
room.  The  kitchen  should  be  built  with  fireproof  walls, 
ceiling,  and  floor.  It  should  be  well  lighted  and  heated  and 
should  be  provided  with  special  ventilation.  Beyond  the 
kitchen  should  be  a  large  storeroom  which  is  kept  cool  and 
dry,  and  a  small  dressing-room  where  the  workers  can  change 
their  clothing  and  hang  their  outer  wraps.  This  dressing- 
room  should  be  provided  with  washing  and  toilet  facilities. 
The  kitchen  floor  should  be  warm.  Where  basement  space 
in  old  buildings  is  being  utilized,  the  floors  are  often  of  con- 
crete and  very  cold.  In  such  places  it  is  usually  well  to  pro- 
vide mats  of  wooden  slats  to  place  in  front  of  the  sink.  A 
plentiful  supply  of  shelves  and  drawers  should  be  installed 
in  the  kitchen  and  service-room  to  hold  the  necessary  lunch- 
room equipment. 

Dispensary.  Every  school  building  should  have  a  dispen- 
sary for  the  use  of  school  physicians  and  nurse.  In  old 
buildings  this  may  either  be  the  end  of  a  corridor  or  part  of 
the  basement,  partitioned  off  and  carefully  finished,  with 
wooden  floors  and  walls.  There  are  very  few  buildings  in 
which  some  space  cannot  be  found  which  with  thought  and 


46  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

ingenuity  can  be  made  into  a  satisfactory  dispensary.  Walls 
and  ceilings  should  be  painted  white  and  made  so  that  they 
can  be  easily  washed.  Opening  off  the  main  dispensary  should 
be  a  small  dressing-room  containing  washstand  and  toilet. 
The  dispensary  should  be  provided  with  a  couch,  a  pair  of 
scales,  a  cabinet  for  holding  medical  supplies,  a  waste-basket, 
several  chairs,  and  a  table. 

Office.  The  principal's  office  should  be  so  located  that  it 
can  be  easily  and  quickly  reached  from  every  part  of  the 
building;  and  it  should  also  be  near  the  main  entrance,  so 
that  visitors  to  the  school  can  find  the  office  quickly.  Per- 
haps the  commonest  location  is  either  to  the  right  or  the  left 
of  the  main  entrance  on  the  first  floor,  although  it  is  fre- 
quently on  the  second  floor  directly  at  the  head  of  the  stair- 
way. Where  possible  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  small  reception- 
room  attached  to  the  main  office.  Both  reception-room  and 
office  should  be  well  lighted  and  furnished  attractively,  with 
comfortable  chairs  and  tables.  In  the  office  there  should  also 
be  a  modern  flat-top  desk  for  the  principal,  a  good-sized 
bookcase,  and  a  vertical  filing-cabinet  for  correspondence 
and  cards.  A  large  closet  should  open  from  the  main  office, 
in  which  may  be  stored  materials  for  temporary  study. 
Attached  to  the  office  there  should  also  be  a  small  dressing- 
room,  equipped  with  toilet  facilities. 

Teachers'  room.  In  every  building  there  should  be  at 
least  one,  and  in  large  buildings  there  should  be  more  than 
one,  room  set  aside  for  the  use  of  the  teaching  staff.  Where 
men  as  well  as  women  are  employed  there  should  be  separate 
rooms  for  each  sex.  These  rooms  should  be  attractively  fur- 
nished. They  should  be  provided  with  a  fair-sized  table  and 
several  comfortable  chairs.  On  one  side  there  should  be  a 
full-length  lounge  with  one  or  more  pillows  and  a  steamer 
rug.  In  a  corner  of  the  room  behind  a  screen  there  should  be 
provided  facilities  for  heating  food.     In  old  buildings  the 


ROOMS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  47 

stove  may  be  heated  by  gas  or  oil,  but  in  new  buildings, 
where  electricity  is  available,  by  far  the  most  convenient 
arrangement  is  an  electric  plate.  A  shelf  should  be  provided 
below  on  which  cooking-utensils  may  be  stored,  and  a  small 
cabinet  is  desirable  for  the  care  of  cups  and  plates.  It  will 
also  be  found  convenient  to  have  in  the  teachers'  room  a 
small  bookcase  for  books  and  magazines.  Toilet  and  wash- 
room, with  a  good  mirror  and  a  plentiful  supply  of  towels, 
should  open  off  the  main  room. 

The  janitor's  room.  The  janitor  is  probably  the  most 
neglected  person  in  the  whole  school  system.  A  good  jan- 
itor is  harder  to  find  and  harder  to  replace  than  a  good 
teacher,  and,  in  most  cases,  than  a  good  school  principal. 
He  has  a  longer  working  day  than  any  one  else  in  the  system. 
During  extremely  cold  weather  in  the  winter  he  sometimes 
must  reach  the  schoolhouse  as  early  as  four  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  and  has  to  stay  there  until  eleven  at  night,  in  order 
to  keep  the  fires  going.  Yet  it  is  an  exceedingly  rare  thing  to 
find  a  school  building  equipped  with  a  comfortable  room  set 
aside  for  the  sole  use  of  the  janitor.  Where  any  space  at  all 
exists,  it  is  frequently  a  small  cubbyhole  opening  off  of  the 
coal-bin,  and  roughly  boarded  in  with  whitewashed  walls 
and  cement  floor. 

The  janitor's  office  must  usually  be  located  in  the  base- 
ment, but  this  is  no  excuse  for  making  it  ugly  and  uncom- 
fortable. It  should  be  near  the  boiler-room,  but  so  located 
that  it  is  well  lighted  and  receives  direct  sun  during  part  of 
the  day.  The  floor  should  be  of  wood,  linoleum,  or  other 
covering,  such  as  is  used  for  regular  business  offices.  A  good- 
sized  desk  should  be  provided,  with  filing-drawers  for  the 
filing  of  correspondence,  accounts,  and  other  papers  which 
the  janitor  must  handle.  There  should  be  a  comfortable 
armchair  and  two  or  three  other  chairs,  and  it  is  also 
probably  desirable  to  furnish  a  comfortable  couch.    Beside 


48  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

the  desk  there  should  stand  a  telephone  which  connects 
with  the  principal's  office.  Where  a  system  of  thermographs 
is  installed  which  shows  the  condition  of  the  temperature  in 
each  room,  the  recording  apparatus  should  be  established  in 
the  janitor's  office.  There  should  also  be  direct  connection 
from  his  office  with  the  fire-alarm  system.  Opening  from  one 
side  should  be  a  small  toilet-room  with  hot  and  cold  running 
water.  With  a  little  intelligent  planning  almost  every  school 
building  may  be  provided  with  a  comfortable  and  well- 
equipped  office  for  the  janitor.  The  resulting  increase  in  the 
efficiency  of  service  rendered  will  be  ample  evidence  that  the 
investment  is  a  wise  one. 

Storerooms.  In  most  school  buildings  too  little  attention 
is  paid  to  the  question  of  storage  space.  It  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  shelves  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  attic  stairways,  or 
even  in  cupboards  under  the  stairways.  Both  of  these  places 
are  bad.  On  the  one  hand,  they  do  not  provide  enough  space, 
and  on  the  other,  they  are  a  constant  source  of  danger  from 
fire.  The  attics  themselves  should  never  be  used  as  storage 
places,  for  the  same  reason.  Certain  materials  may  success- 
fully be  kept  in  the  basement,  but  in  old  buildings  basement 
storerooms  are  apt  to  be  damp,  so  that  material  stored 
there  becomes  rusty  or  mouldy. 

It  is  probably  desirable  to  have  at  least  two  storerooms 
in  the  building.  One  may  be  in  the  basement,  carefully 
arranged  to  avoid  dampness,  and  intended  for  storing  jan- 
itor's supplies.  The  other  storeroom  should  be  above  the 
basement  level  and  should  be  used  for  storing  books,  pa- 
pers, and  so  forth.  Rooms  where  inflammable  materials 
are  stored,  such  as  paints,  oils,  raffia,  and  the  like,  should 
be  built  with  fireproof  ceilings,  walls,  and  floors.  Where 
sprinkler  protection  is  installed  in  a  building  it  is  usually 
wise  to  have  sprinkler  heads  in  the  ceilings  of  these  store- 
rooms. 


ROOMS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING  49 


QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Outline  the  changes  in  architecture  and  equipment  which  would 
have  to  be  made  if  your  own  educational  philosophy  were  fully  lived 
up  to. 

2.  What  are  the  standard  instruments  for  measuring  light?  Which  are 
the  most  applicable  for  school  purposes? 

3.  Make  a  study  of  typical  high-school  programs,  and  with  this  as  a  basis 
specify  the  number  and  dimensions  of  classrooms  which  would  most 
efficiently  meet  the  present  demands  of  each  school. 

4.  Compare  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  room  wardrobes, 
sunken  wardrobes,  lockers,  etc.,  and  their  location  in  classrooms,  halls, 
or  basements. 

5.  How  should  a  classroom  for  partially  blind  children  differ  from  that 
for  the  deaf?  For  mental  defectives?  For  truants? 

6.  How  should  the  size  of  an  auditorium  be  calculated?  What  special 
considerations  should  be  kept  in  mind? 

7.  For  what  purposes  may  flat  roofs  be  utilized? 

8.  What  plans  have  been  placed  in  operation  for  combining  gymnasiums 
and  auditoriums?  What  are  their  respective  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages? 

9.  Are  school  authorities  justified  in  building  auditoriums  which  are  used 
only  three  times  a  year?  For  half  an  hour  each  morning?  What  is 
the  basis  for  deciding? 

10.  How  may  cement  floors  be  prepared  for  dancing?  Linoleum  floors? 

11.  Outline  a  plan  for  cooperation  between  the  public  library  and  the 
public  schools.  What  is  your  opinion  of  Cubberley's  proposition  that 
the  public  libraries  and  museums  should  be  under  the  direction  of 
school  authorities? 

12.  How  much  storage  space  should  be  allowed  for  an  eight-room  ele- 
mentary school,  and  how  should  it  be  distributed? 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

American  School  Board  Journal.   Bruce  Publishing  Company,  Milwaukee. 
See  current  numbers  and  past  files.   Contains  much  valuable  material. 

Bruce,  W.  G.   School  Architecture.  Johnson  Service  Company,  Milwaukee. 

Good  general  reference. 

Burgerstein,  Leo.  School  Hygiene,  translated  from  German  by  B.  L. 
Stevenson  and  A.  L.Von  der  Osten.  F.  A.  Stokes  &  Company,  New 
York.    (1915.) 

Excellent  reference  book. 


50  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Cubberley,  E.  P.  Public  School  Administration.  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany. (1916.) 

Chapter  xxiv,  on  "Auxiliary  Educational  Agencies,"  points  out  the  desirability  of 
connecting  libraries  and  museums  more  closely  with  the  schools. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.  School  Hygiene.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New 
York.    (1913.) 

Monroe,  Paul.   Cyclopedia  of  Education.  See  various  articles. 

See  also  chapters  on  buildings  in  various  school  surveys,  especially  those 
for  Butte,  Cleveland,  Denver,  Portland,  Salt  Lake  City,  and  Brook- 
line,  Mass.. 


CHAPTER  IV 

CLASSROOM  EQUIPMENT 

Platform.  The  teacher's  platform  probably  originated 
in  the  days  when,  under  the  old  Lancastrian  system,  one 
teacher  with  a  few  pupil  assistants  was  placed  in  charge  of 
a  schoolroom  containing  often  as  many  as  three  hundred 
children.  With  any  such  number  as  that  it  became  exceed- 
ingly important  that  the  teacher  be  given  a  point  of  vantage 
from  which  to  see  what  was  going  on.  Wilderspin,  with  his 
infant  school,  tried  the  plan  of  seating  children  upon  wide 
steps  rising  one  above  the  other,  not  unlike  circus  seats. 
This  arrangement  is  still  common  in  the  primary  schools  of 
England.  For  the  older  children  in  this  country  in  the  early 
days  we  find  slanting  floors,  small  platforms  each  lifting  a 
row  of  seats  above  the  row  in  front,  seats  themselves  grad- 
uated in  height,  platforms  along  the  rear  of  the  room,  and 
finally  the  front  platform  which  has  remained  until  the 
present  day.  Now  that  the  number  of  pupils  per  classroom 
has  been  materially  reduced,  the  need  for  a  raised  platform 
has  disappeared.  From  the  hygienic  standpoint  the  raised 
platform  is  a  dirt-gatherer  and  a  nuisance.  Pedagogical 
reasons  are  equally  against  it;  and  the  two  forces  combined 
are  banishing  the  platform  from  the  schoolroom. 

Blackboards.  The  front,  back,  and  right-hand  walls  of 
most  schoolrooms  are  lined  w^4&  blackboards,  or  what  were 
known  in  the  early  days  as  "lecture  boards."  The  first  form 
was  several  planed  boards  nailed  together  and  painted  black. 
Sometimes  the  teacher's  desk  was  painted  black  on  the 
outside  and  its  front  panels  used  as  writing  space  for  the 
younger  children.     At  the  present  time  there  are  many 


52  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

different  forms.  Prepared  cloth  or  strong  black  paper  is 
useful  for  temporary  work,  especially  when  charts  or  signs 
must  be  carried  from  building  to  building.  They  should 
never  be  installed  as  permanent  blackboards.  There  are 
very  many  different  forms  of  paper  or  wood-pulp  composi- 
tion boards  pressed  into  sheets  which  are  fairly  satisfactory 
for  brief  periods.  They  are  pleasing  in  appearance,  easily 
mounted,  and  inexpensive.  Most  of  such  preparations,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  washed  without  absorbing  water,  become 
damp  during  rainy  weather,  gradually  grow  oily,  and  in 
time  buckle  or  chip.  Composition  blackboards  are  rarely 
wise  investments. 

Perhaps  the  commonest  form  of  blackboard  now  in  use  is 
made  by  covering  brick  or  wood  lath  with  plaster,  and 
painting  the  surface.  These  plaster  boards  crack  in  fine  lines, 
and  frequently  blister  and  peel.  They  are  rapidly  going  out 
of  use.  A  fairly  satisfactory  board  on  much  the  same  prin- 
ciple may  be  made  by  setting  up  a  solid  backing  of  wood, 
brick,  or  cement,  laying  metal  lath  upon  it,  and  then  apply- 
ing a  smooth  layer  of  good-quality  cement,  colored  black, 
with  just  a  tinge  of  green.  If  a  wood  backing  is  used,  care 
must  be  taken  or  the  absorption  of  water  will  cause  the 
cement  to  crack  as  it  dries.  Cement  boards  are  apt  to  be  of 
different  colors  in  different  parts  of  the  room,  owing  to  the 
necessity  of  mixing  in  small  quantities;  and  after  being  used 
for  some  time  they  frequently  fade  or  spot.  Even  when 
great  care  is  used  in  smoothing  the  surface,  the  grain  is 
usually  so  rough  that  chalk  is  quickly  worn  down.  There 
are  on  the  market  several  varieties  of  material  to  be  laid 
on  in  a  similar  way,  most  of  which  are  open  to  the  same 
objections. 

It  is  said  to  be  the  common  practice  in  England  to  make 
blackboards  out  of  heavy  sheets  of  glass,  ground  as  smooth 
as  possible  on  one  side  and  rather  rough  on  the  other.   The 


CLASSROOM  EQUIPMENT  53 

rough  side  is  painted  any  desired  color,  and  the  board  is 
then  mounted  with  the  rough  side  toward  the  wall.  The 
smooth  face  presents  an  excellent  writing  surface,  and  the 
strokes  made  by  the  chalk  stand  out  clearly  against  the 
painted  background.  Grinding  must  be  done  carefully  so 
that  any  remaining  roughness  will  not  cut  too  deeply  into 
the  chalk.  Glass  blackboards  are  rather  expensive,  and 
have  been  little  used  in  this  country.  It  is  rather  unfortu- 
nate that  more  experiments  have  not  been  carried  on  with 
them;  for  while  they  break  easily  during  transportation, 
when  once  set  up  they  are  durable,  easily  cleaned,  satisfac- 
tory to  write  upon,  and  may  be  given  any  desired  color.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  at  some  time  we  may  have  "black- 
boards" of  glass  tinted  in  buff  or  cream,  and  dark-colored 
chalk  used  instead  of  white.  Such  a  change  would  prob- 
ably be  of  benefit  to  the  eyes,  and  certainly  would  make  an 
immense  change  in  the  general  attractiveness  of  the  school- 
room. 

Slate  blackboards  were  introduced  into  this  country  early 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
among  the  arguments  in  favor  of  slate,  as  opposed  to  painted 
wood,  was  the  suggestion  that  slate  pencils  might  then  take 
the  place  of  chalk,  and  much  disagreeable  dust  be  avoided. 
At  the  present  time  the  best  schools  in  the  country  are 
equipped  throughout  with  slate  boards;  and,  when  cut  in 
large  slabs  and  carefully  set  up,  this  material  is  probably 
the  superior  to  everything  except  glass.  Unless  great  care  is 
used  in  fastening  the  slabs  to  their  backing,  cracks  are  left 
between  portions.  Frequently  slabs  warp,  and  the  joints  jut 
out  so  that  chalk  and  eraser  often  knock  against  them.  Slate  is 
expensive,  but  practically  never  wears  out.  It  can  be  washed 
freely.  If  care  is  taken  in  selection  and  installation,  the  slate 
blackboard  gives  good  service.  Slate  or  glass  should  be  the 
only  materials  used  for  blackboards  in  new  school  buildings. 


54  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Placing  and  heights.  Blackboards  should  never  be  placed 
between  windows,  because  when  children  face  directly 
toward  the  light  the  pupil  of  the  eye  contracts  so  as  to  shut 
out  part  of  the  glare.  When  they  are  in  this  contracted  con- 
dition any  attempt  to  read  what  is  written  on  the  wall  next 
to  the  window  is  difficult,  and  often  positively  harmful,  be- 
cause the  eyes  are  not  properly  adjusted  for  such  work.  In 
rooms  lighted  from  the  left  side  only  there  will  be  no  space 
available  for  blackboards  between  windows,  but  boards  may 
properly  be  placed  upon  the  other  three  sides.  Most  of  the 
work  of  the  students  should  be  done  upon  the  board  directly 
opposite  the  windows,  since  it  is  here  that  the  work  is  most 
easily  read  by  others.  The  board  at  the  front  of  the  room 
should  be  especially  planned  for  use  by  the  teacher. 

In  the  first  and  second  grades  the  boards  at  side  and  back 
should  be  placed  twenty-four  inches  from  the  floor,  and 
should  be  twenty-eight  inches  wide.  In  the  third  and 
fourth  grades  they  may  be  set  twenty-seven  inches  from  the 
floor  and  be  thirty  inches  wide;  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades, 
thirty  inches  from  the  floor  and  thirty-two  inches  wide;  in 
the  upper  grammar  grades,  thirty-two  inches  from  the  floor 
and  thirty-six  inches  wide;  and  in  the  high  school,  thirty -six 
inches  from  the  floor  and  forty  inches  wide.  In  each  case 
the  distance  from  the  floor  is  determined  by  the  height  at 
which  smaller  pupils  in  each  grade  are  able  comfortably  to 
write  upon  the  blackboard;  while  the  width  recommended 
is  that  which  will  give  the  needed  amount  of  writing  area 
without  adding  unnecessary  surface  of  light-absorbing 
material.  If,  as  has  been  previously  suggested,  the  glass 
board  with  cream-colored  background  ever  becomes  a  part 
of  our  school  equipment,  the  width  may  be  materially  in- 
creased without  danger  of  eye-strain.  The  teacher's  board 
at  the  front  of  the  room  should  be  thirty-six  inches  from  the 
floor  and  forty  inches  wide.  Children  will  rarely  be  required 


CLASSROOM  EQUIPMENT  55 

to  write  upon  this  board;  its  height  should  be  convenient  for 
the  teacher's  use;  and  it  should  be  easily  seen  from  seats  at 
the  back  of  the  room.  In  ungraded  classes  the  board  should 
be  twenty-four  inches  from  the  floor  and  from  thirty-six  to 
forty  inches  wide.  Light-colored  curtains  should  be  provided 
to  cover  the  boards  when  not  in  use. 

Dust  and  erasers.  The  alarming  prevalence  of  tubercu- 
losis among  school  children  and  teachers  is  frequently 
charged  to  the  excessive  amounts  of  chalk  dust  which  fill  the 
air  of  classrooms,  are  taken  into  the  lungs,  and  irritate  the 
delicate  surface  of  the  breathing  tracts.  Chalk  seems  to  be  a 
necessary  classroom  tool,  but  with  proper  care  may  be  pre- 
vented from  doing  harm.  Dustless  crayons  are  now  on  the 
market  which  are  a  distinct  improvement  upon  the  soft 
plaster-of-Paris  preparations  which  were  formerly  widely 
used.  Soft  chalk,  which  easily  crumbles  and  writes  with  too 
thick  a  line,  should  be  eliminated  from  the  schoolroom 
and  its  purchase  should  be  prohibited.  A  trough  should  be 
placed  below  each  board,  with  a  deep  depression  to  catch 
the  dust.  A  wide-meshed  wire  screen,  fastened  with  hinges, 
should  be  placed  across  the  top,  so  that  erasers  may  rest 
upon  it  instead  of  being  allowed  to  rest  directly  upon  piles 
of  powdered  chalk.  The  hinges  make  it  easy  to  lift  the  screen 
and  clean  the  troughs  at  the  close  of  each  session.  For  schools 
where  vacuum  cleaning  plants  are  installed,  there  has  been 
devised  special  apparatus  for  removing  chalk  dust  from 
troughs  without  the  labor  of  using  dustcloth  or  brush. 

Fifteen  years  ago  cleaning  erasers  was  a  privilege  highly 
coveted  by  all  the  class,  and  the  good  little  child  with  weak 
lungs,  chronically  too  tired  to  get  into  mischief,  was  usually 
awarded  the  honor.  It  was  a  common  thing  to  see  children 
at  open  windows,  holding  a  wooden  eraser  covered  with  felt 
in  each  hand,  and  energetically  clapping  them  together  to 
remove  the  dust.  The  open  window  usually  created  a  draught 


56  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

and  the  cooler  outside  air  was  sucked  into  the  room,  carry- 
ing liberated  particles  of  chalk  back  with  it  and  covering 
hair  and  faces  of  the  monitors  with  soft  grayish-white 
powder.  Even  to-day  there  probably  are  teachers  who  carry 
on  the  custom,  but  in  most  cases  such  indefensible  action  is 
due  to  ignorance  rather  than  to  intentional  cruelty. 

If  erasers  must  be  whacked  against  hard  surfaces  in  order 
to  clean  them,  the  work  should  be  done  well  away  from  the 
school  building,  in  the  open  air,  by  an  adult  person  with 
strong  lungs.  There  are,  however,  on  the  market  several 
different  kinds  of  machines  for  this  purpose,  all  of  which  are 
designed  to  catch  the  dust  as  it  escapes  without  permitting 
it  to  fly  out  into  the  room.  Some  of  these  machines  are 
equipped  with  revolving  brushes;  others  draw  the  dust  out 
by  means  of  a  vacuum  pump.  Several  of  the  designs  are 
effective  and  inexpensive,  and  within  the  reach  of  every 
schoolboard.  If  a  vacuum  cleaning  apparatus  has  been  in- 
stalled in  the  building,  a  hose  attachment  with  a  long  narrow 
opening  can  easily  be  provided  in  the  basement  by  means 
of  which  the  janitor  can  clean  all  erasers. 

Desks  and  chairs;  rules  for  placing.  Ever  since  before  the 
days  of  Horace  Mann  we  have  been  experimenting  with 
schoolroom  desks  and  chairs.  Scores  of  different  models  have 
been  devised  and  theories  evolved,  each  securing  its  own 
small  group  of  ardent  advocates.  At  the  present  time  there 
seems  to  be  even  greater  diversity  than  before;  and  the  sug- 
gestions advanced  may  be  roughly  divided  into  three  main 
groups. 

The  first  and  largest  group  contemplates  a  continuance 
of  the  present  educational  method  by  which  children  are 
expected  to  spend  most  of  their  time  in  sitting  still.  Under 
such  a  system  it  is  necessary  to  provide  chairs  and  desks 
which  will  be  comfortable,  and  do  no  more  harm  than  is  un- 
avoidable to  growing  children.   Most  suggestions  for  school- 


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Fig.  9.  A  Movable  Schoolroom  Chair 

Now  much  used.  A  drawer  under  the  seat  holds  the  books.  The  desk  arm  is 

adjustable 


CLASSROOM  EQUIPMENT  57 

room  furniture  fall  under  this  head.  There  are  few  definite 
rules  which  are  followed  by  all  the  advocates  of  fixed  desks 
and  seats,  but  the  following  suggestions  are  commonly  ac- 
cepted :  — 

1.  Adjustment.  Desks  and  chairs  should  be  adjusted  to 
the  height  of  the  child.  This  may  be  done  either  by  supply- 
ing several  different  sizes  for  each  room,  or  by  making  any 
individual  piece  of  furniture  so  that  it  can  be  adjusted  to  the 
needs  of  the  person  using  it.  In  buying  furniture  it  is  well 
to  make  sure  that  the  adjustments  can  be  made  swiftly 
and  easily.  Many  janitors  find  this  one  of  their  most  tedi- 
ous tasks.  Furniture  has  been  devised  with  a  simple  crank 
arrangement  which  raises  or  lowers  chair  or  desk  while  the 
child  is  actually  in  his  place.  The  work  can  be  rapidly  done 
by  an  older  pupil  under  the  teacher's  direction. 

2.  Inspection.  This  should  be  made  after  every  promo- 
tion period  to  see  to  it  that  adjustment  has  actually  been 
made.  Practically  all  city  superintendents  admit  the  neces- 
sity of  supplying  furniture  of  different  sizes,  or  else  adjust- 
able furniture,  but  there  are  few  cities  in  which  more  than 
three  fourths  of  the  children  are  so  supplied,  and  there  is 
hardly  a  city  in  the  country  where  such  adjustable  furniture 
is  actually  adjusted  after  each  promotion  period. 

3.  Should  be  single.  That  is,  each  desk  or  chair  should  be 
intended  for  one  person  only.  In  Europe  and  in  some  parts 
of  this  country  the  old  style  of  double  desks  and  chairs  is 
still  retained,  but  the  custom  is  rapidly  disappearing.  Double 
seating  usually  means  lack  of  adjustment  to  the  individual 
child  and  interference  of  one  child  with  his  fellow. 

k.  Feet  and  floor,  Seats  should  be  low  enough  so  that  the 
pupil's  feet  rest  squarely  on  the  floor;  otherwise  the  blood 
vessels  in  the  under  part  of  the  thigh  become  constricted 
and  retard  circulation.  In  exaggerated  cases  it  is  claimed 
that  the  thigh  bone  actually  becomes  bent  and  the  child  is 


58  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

permanently  deformed  as  a  result  of  continued  sitting  on  too 
high  a  chair.  Dr.  Dresslar  suggests  that  the  proper  height 
of  the  seat  is  approximately  two  sevenths  of  the  height  of 
the  child.  On  the  other  hand,  seats  should  never  be  so  low 
that  the  knee  is  raised  above  the  level  of  the  hips. 

5.  Rounded  corners.  Seats  and  desks  should  be  rounded 
at  the  corners,  in  order  to  prevent  possible  injuries. 

6.  Shape  of  seat.  Seats  should  be  slightly  hollowed  out  to 
fit  the  natural  curve  of  the  body,  instead  of  being  flat  like  a 
settee.  The  width  of  the  seat  from  back  to  front  should  be 
that  which  affords  sufficient  support  for  the  body,  but  at 
the  same  time  brings  the  back  of  the  body  against  the  back 
of  the  chair.  Burgerstein  suggests  a  width  of  two  thirds  the 
thigh  length. 

7.  Tilting  of  seat.  Many  authorities  claim  that  the  seat 
of  the  chair  should  be  tipped  slightly  back,  as  are  the  seats 
of  rocking-chairs,  so  that  the  body  is  easily  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  back  rest. 

|  8.  The  support  for  the  back.  The  back  rest  should  be  tipped 
slightly,  and  should  afford  support  for  the  spine.  It  is  on 
this  latter  point  that  recommendations  differ  most  widely. 
Many  authorities  claim  that  the  chair  back  should  not  rise 
above  the  lower  part  of  the  shoulder  blades.  Others  demand 
hip  rests  rather  than  back  rests.  Some  claim  that  chairs  for 
girls  should  have  a  greater  curve  inward  than  chairs  for 
boys.  Many  persons  emphatically  demand  that  every  chair 
be  equipped  with  a  movable  back  rest,  which  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  and  is  intended  to  support  "the  small  of  the  back." 
The  facts  seem  to  be  that  in  a  correct  sitting  posture  the 
spine  shows  a  slight  inner  curve,  but  that  this  curve  is  much 
more  shallow  in  sitting  than  in  standing.  The  inward  spinal 
curve  of  adolescent  girls  is  greater  than  that  of  boys.  Sup- 
port should  be  given  to  the  spine,  and  may  be  supplied  either 
by  the  naturally  curved  back  of  the  chair,  or  by  movable 


CLASSROOM  EQUIPMENT  59 

rests  which  can  be  adjusted  to  the  needs  of  the  individual 
child.  In  this  connection  it  is  important  to  note  that  great 
discomfort  may  result  either  from  placing  the  supporting 
pad  too  low  or  in  allowing  it  to  project  too  far  forward.  The 
old  "liver-pad  "  form  of  seat,  which  was  highly  recommended 
some  time  ago,  furnished  a  low  back  fitting  closely  against 
the  lumbar  region  of  the  spine.  This  design  has  since  been 
generally  discarded  because  it  was  found  that  in  many  chil- 
dren long  hours  of  sitting  in  such  a  seat  produced  bladder 
trouble,  accompanied  by  excess  of  albumen  in  the  urine. 

9.  The  "minus  distance."  Desks  should  be  so  placed  that 
the  top  of  the  desk  projects  over  the  front  of  the  seat,  and 
yet  sufficient  room  is  provided  to  allow  children  to  rise  with- 
out crowding.  The  accepted  standard  for  this  relation  of 
chair  and  desk  is  that  a  plumb  line  dropped  from  the  center 
of  the  front  of  the  desk  should  mark  a  point  one  and  one  half 
inches  in  from  the  front  edge  of  the  chair.  This  overlapping 
of  the  chair  and  desk  is  known  as  "minus  distance."  Where 
the  front  edge  of  the  desk  is  exactly  above  the  front  edge  of 
the  chair  the  condition  is  known  as  "zero  distance,"  and 
where  there  is  a  space  between  the  two  edges  it  is  known  as 
"plus  distance."  It  is  unfortunately  true  that  in  some  of  our 
leading  school  systems,  where  the  most  approved  types  of 
furniture  are  being  installed,  the  actual  screwing  fast  of 
chairs  and  desks  is  done  without  adequate  supervision,  and 
zero  or  plus  distances  are  frequently  the  result. 

What  plus  distance  means  to  the  child  who  is  forced  to 
occupy  the  chair  will  be  realized  by  any  one  who  has  had 
experience  with  certain  lunch-places  where  revolving  stools 
are  fastened  to  the  floor  at  some  distance  from  the  counter. 
Where  the  stools  are  also  so  high  that  the  customer's  feet 
dangle  into  space  and  a  foot -rail  is  not  provided,  one  is  given 
a  vivid  sample  of  the  discomfort  suffered  by  all  too  many  of 
our  school  children. 


60  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

10.  Desk  height.  School  men  vary  widely  in  their  stand- 
ards for  desk  height.  One  of  the  most  common  statements 
is  that  when  the  forearm  rests  on  the  top  of  the  desk  it 
should  form  a  right  angle  with  the  upper  arm.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  there  are  practically  no  desks  on  the  market  which 
can  be  adjusted  as  low  as  this,  because  the  space  between 
elbow  height  and  knee  is  less  than  the  depth  of  the  book  box. 
The  commonest  practice  is  to  place  desks  about  the  height 
of  the  end  of  the  breast  bone.  Adherents  of  the  high  desk 
claim  that  the  low  desk  causes  round  shoulders.  Adherents 
of  the  low  desk  claim  that  the  high  desk  results  in  cramped 
chests  and  crooked  backs  and  eye-strain.  It  seems  to  be 
true  that  the  lower  the  desk  the  more  it  must  overlap  the 
front  of  the  seat.  A  pronounced  minus  distance  with  low 
desk  combats  rather  successfully  tendencies  toward  round 
shoulders.  While  few  hard-and-fast  rules  can  be  laid  down, 
it  seems  probable  that  further  experiments  will  put  book 
boxes  at  the  side  or  under  the  chair,  lower  the  desk  from 
breast  line  or  elbow,  and  push  the  chair  well  under  the  desk. 

11.  Desk-top  slant.  The  top  of  the  desk  should  slant  in 
order  that  books  and  papers  may  be  held  at  as  near  a  right 
angle  with  the  line  of  vision  as  possible.  With  the  flat  table 
papers  are  often  at  a  wide  obtuse  angle,  and  the  result  is 
that  in  order  to  see  easily  the  student  is  obliged  to  place  his 
book  on  an  upright  support  or  else  bend  forward.  The  gen- 
tleman at  the  restaurant  table  who  stands  his  evening  paper 
against  the  sugar  bowl  does  so  because  of  a  strong  hygienic 
impulse.  It  should  be  noted  also  that  increased  distance  be- 
tween chair  and  desk  increases  the  distance  from  eyes  to 
book,  and  the  obtuse  angle  between  the  book  and  the  line 
of  vision.  Suggestions  as  to  the  proper  slant  range  from  ten 
to  forty-five  degrees.  Adherents  of  the  extreme  slant  bring 
forward  as  arguments  engravings  of  the  desks  used  in  medi- 
eval monasteries  for  some  of  the  most  beautiful  writing  ever 


Fig.  10.  Types  of  Adjustable  Seats  and  Desks 

(a)  Teacher  adjusting  chair  and  desk  to  the  boy  (6)  Boy  adjusting  seat 


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CLASSROOM  EQUIPMENT  61 

done.  These  desks  were  slanted  at  an  angle  of  about  fifty 
degrees.  Ink  was  used,  and  the  pens  were  of  poorer  quality 
than  those  of  the  present  day.  People  on  the  other  side  state 
that  at  such  a  slant  books,  papers,  and  pencils  slide  to 
the  floor,  ink  will  not  run,  and  the  child  is  hidden  from  the 
teacher. 

In  general  it  may  be  stated  that  the  nearer  the  desk  top 
is  slanted  to  a  forty-five  degree  angle  during  reading  or 
written  work  the  better  it  meets  the  requirements  of  vision, 
and  the  less  danger  there  is  of  spinal  curvature  due  to  faulty 
sitting  position.  Practically,  although  many  desks  with 
adjustable  lids  have  been  invented,  very  few  have  proved 
satisfactory.  Usually  the  mechanism  is  elaborate  and  apt  to 
get  out  of  order.  Desks  slanting  at  fifteen  degrees  are  com- 
monly manufactured,  and  are  much  superior  to  the  flat  top. 
For  the  present  many  school  men  will  feel  that  the  fifteen 
degree  desk  is  the  only  one  sufficiently  durable  and  simple 
for  wide  schoolroom  use. 

The  importance  of  procuring  a  greater  slant  is,  however, 
so  great  that  every  superintendent  should  bear  in  mind  the 
possibility  of  devising  satisfactory  desks.  Whenever  a  desk 
is  brought  to  his  attention  which  seems  to  combine  new  and 
desirable  features  the  superintendent  should  see  to  it  that 
a  few  samples  —  say  five  or  six  —  are  purchased  and  placed 
in  the  regular  schoolrooms  to  be  tried  out  by  teachers  and 
pupils.  Through  such  a  plan  of  experiment  and  criticism  it 
should  not  be  long  before  the  up-to-date  superintendent  is 
able  to  secure  desks  and  chairs  which  will  be  easy  to  adjust, 
inexpensive,  and  in  accordance  with  rules  of  hygiene. 

12.  Movable  top.  Some  arrangement  should  be  made 
whereby  the  front  of  the  desk  may  be  drawn  toward  the 
pupil  when  he  writes,  so  that  the  forearm  will  receive  ade- 
quate support.  When  this  is  done  the  angle  between  the  line 
of  vision  and  paper  is  considerably  lessened. 


62  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

13.  Pedestal  chairs.  There  are  various  types  of  chair  and 
desk  supports  on  the  market.  Most  chairs  are  placed  on  a 
single  pedestal.  Desks  are  either  supported  by  one  pedestal 
at  the  center  back  or  by  a  leg  on  each  side.  It  is  probably 
desirable  to  use  the  one  pedestal  method  wherever  furniture 
can  be  found  so  manufactured  that  the  pedestal  can  be  fixed 
firmly  to  the  floor  and  will  not  pull  loose.  The  furniture  now 
on  the  market  varies  so  greatly  in  this  respect  that  care 
should  be  taken  to  experiment  with  different  samples  before 
buying.  Single-pedestal  furniture  makes  the  problems  of 
cleaning  very  much  simpler  for  the  janitor,  because  it  fur- 
nishes few  crannies  in  which  dirt  and  sweeping  compounds 
can  lodge. 

The  use  of  one  pedestal  for  a  desk  and  the  chair  in  front 
of  it  is  usually  not  wise,  because  it  makes  rearrangement  of 
furniture  difficult,  sometimes  prevents  adjustment  to  fit  size 
of  pupil,  and  usually  allows  the  desk  to  be  shaken  by  move- 
ments of  the  child  who  sits  in  the  chair  attached  to  it. 

Movable  furniture.  Most  school  men  regard  the  fixed 
chair  and  desk,  for  the  present  at  least,  as  a  necessity.  There 
are  a  few,  however,  who  earnestly  advocate  some  form 
movable  furniture.  A  pioneer  in  the  movable  furniture 
movement  was  Horace  Mann,  together  with  Joseph  W. 
Ingraham  and  other  co-workers.  Mann  advocated  small 
armchairs,  with  boxes  for  books  placed  at  the  side,  back, 
or  under  the  seat.  No  lapboard  was  considered  necessary. 
These  chairs  were  widely  used  in  the  Boston  primary  schools, 
and  Henry  Barnard,  in  speaking  of  them  somewhat  later, 
declares  that  they  were  exceedingly  successful. 

During  the  past  few  years  the  agitation  in  favor  of  mov- 
able furniture  has  again  come  into  prominence.  Several 
varieties  are  on  the  market.  Some  are  made  with  broad 
arms  on  the  right-hand  side,  similar  to  the  chairs  so  com- 
monly used  in  college  lecture-rooms.   Others  are  adjustable 


CLASSROOM  EQUIPMENT  63 

in  height,  with  swinging  arms.  The  rules  just  cited  as  to 
height,  width,  back,  etc.,  hold  good  whether  chairs  are  fixed 
or  movable.  The  chief  difficulty  so  far  experienced  with 
movable  furniture  is,  that  it  is  so  constructed  that  it  gets 
out  of  order  easily,  or  else  the  writing-shelf  is  poorly  braced 
and  unsteady.  Very  few  types  have  the  desk  attachment 
properly  slanted.  The  various  designs  are  constantly  being 
revised,  and  doubtless  before  long  we  shall  have  available 
movable  chairs  and  desks  which  will  be  as  comfortable  and 
durable  as  the  better  class  of  fixed  furniture. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  educational  method,  movable 
furniture  is  desirable  because  it  renders  the  school  program 
more  flexible.  Space  may  be  cleared  in  the  center  of  the 
room  for  games  or  dramatic  presentation.  Chairs  may  be 
carried  outdoors.  Classes  may  be  divided  into  five  or  six 
small  groups,  working  in  circles  in  different  parts  of  the  room. 
In  such  uses,  however,  care  must  be  taken,  whenever  chil- 
dren are  expected  to  sit  quietly  for  as  long  as  half  an  hour, 
to  see  that  each  child  has  found  his  own  chair  which  is 
properly  adjusted  to  him.  In  moving  the  chairs  about  it  is 
an  easy  matter  for  children  to  become  confused. 

Workroom  furniture.  In  addition  to  those  who  argue  in 
favor  of  fixed  or  movable  furniture,  there  is  a  still  smaller 
third  group  of  educators  who  believe  that  it  will  not  be  long 
before  present  educational  methods  will  have  been  discarded, 
and  the  classroom  become  a  place  where  children  are  active 
at  various  tasks  which  require  moving  from  place  to  place. 
In  such  a  room  there  might  be  rugs  for  children  to  use  in 
sitting  or  lying  upon  the  floor,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Mon- 
tessori  school.  There  would  probably  be  movable  chairs  of 
different  sizes,  tables  for  one,  two,  or  three  workers,  tables 
at  which  children  stand  instead  of  sitting,  long  work-benches, 
and  the  like.  The  leaders  of  the  new  movement  are  as  yet 
very  indefinite  in  their  planning,  but  it  is  probable  that  with 


I 


64  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

new  educational  theories  and  experiments  the  traditional 
furniture  of  the  classroom  will  gradually  be  displaced  by 
equipment  better  suited  to  the  needs  of  children  who  are 
actively  learning. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Dr.  Dresslar,  in  his  article  on  "School  Architecture"  in  Monroe's 
Cyclopedia  of  Education,  says,  "in  the  churches  and  early  schools  the 
priest-teacher  spoke  ex  cathedra;  the  fixed  platforms  in  grammar 
schools  are  the  remnants  of  these  ..."  What  is  your  opinion?  Why? 

2.  What  does  the  installation  of  a  platform  imply  as  to  classroom  method? 

3.  W'hy  should  windows  in  unilaterally  lighted  rooms  extend  nearer  the 
back  than  the  front? 

4.  In  rooms  lighted  from  two  sides,  what  is  the  desirable  arrangement 
of  blackboard  space? 

5.  In  inspecting  buildings  how  can  one  tell  by  brief  examination  whether 
blackboards  are  of  slate,  cement,  composition  board,  plaster  on  wood 
lath,  plaster  on  brick,  or  paper? 

6.  Why  are  not  glass  blackboards  more  popular  in  this  country?  Wrhere 
they  ha,re  been  used  what  objections  have  been  raised? 

7.  In  some  schools  wide  frames  holding  scrolls  of  cheap  paper  are  used 
instead  of  blackboards.  What  are  the  good  and  bad  points  of  this 
practice? 

8.  Make  a  collection  of  samples  of  chalk  from  different  firms,  and  decide 
which  is  best  for  regular  school  use  and  why. 

9.  What  different  devices  are  on  the  market  for  cleaning  erasers?  Com- 
pare as  to  principle,  simplicity,  effectiveness,  speed,  durability,  and 
cost. 

10.  How  does  the  theory  of  the  "normal  surface  of  distribution"  apply 
to  the  question  of  school  furniture?  Under  what  conditions  may  most 
of  the  chairs  and  desks  in  a  classroom  properly  be  non-adjustable? 

11.  What  different  devices  are  there  on  the  market  for  quick  adjustment 
of  furniture?   How  do  they  work? 

12.  What  should  be  the  relative  responsibility  for  having  chairs  and  desks 
adjusted;  of  the  teacher,  principal,  janitor,  child,  physical  training 
teacher,  school  nurse,  medical  inspector,  superintendent,  and  parent? 

13.  Why  is  it  that  the  shelf  for  a  typewriter  in  an  office  desk  of  the  flat- 
top type  is  usually  sunk  five  or  six  inches  below  the  desk  level?  What 
angle  is  formed  by  the  typist's  forearm  and  upper  arm?  If  typewriting 
were  done  with  one  hand  only  could  the  machine  be  raised?  What 
bearing  has  this  discussion  on  the  question  of  school  furniture? 

14.  In  some  States  there  exist  legal  provisions  against  installing  movable 
furniture  in  public  schools.  W'hy?  How  valid  are  the  reasons  given? 4 


CLASSROOM  EQUIPMENT  65 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Ayres,  May.    "A  Century  of  Progress  in  Schoolhouse  Construction";  in 
American  School  Board  Journal,    June,   July,    August,    September, 
1917.    (Milwaukee.) 
Discusses  ecclesiastical  theory. 

Bruce,  W.  G.  School  Architecture.  Johnson  Service  Company,  Milwaukee. 
(1910.) 
Useful  sections  on  blackboards  and  school  furniture. 

Burgerstein,  L.   School  Hygiene.   Translated  by  B.  L.  Stevenson  and  A.  L. 
Von  der  Osten,  New  York.    (1915.) 
Exceedingly  useful  reference  book. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.    "School  Architecture";  in  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of 
Education.   The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York.    (1911.) 
Gives  ecclesiastical  theory  of  school  building  construction. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.    School  Hygiene.    The  Macmillan  Company,  New 
York.    (1913.) 
One  of  the  best  references  on  topics  treated  in  this  chapter. 

Terman,  Lewis  M.    The  Building  Situation  and  Medical  Inspection  ;  Part 
v  of  the  Denver  School  Survey  Report.   Denver,  Colorado.    (1916.) 
Brief  sections  dealing  with  seating  and  blackboards. 

Much  valuable  information  can  also  be  secured  by  a  discriminating  study 
of  the  printed  matter  issued  by  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  school 
equipment. 


CHAPTER  V 

LIGHTING 

1.   Natural  Lighting 

Unilateral.  We  have  already  discussed  at  some  length  the 
placing  of  school  buildings  with  respect  to  the  points  of  the 
compass  and  the  lighting.  When  the  subject  was  first  under 
discussion,  various  plans  were  suggested  whereby  lighting 
might  be  allowed  from  two  sides  —  left  and  rear,  or  left  and 
right,  but  during  recent  years  the  arguments  in  favor  of 
unilateral  lighting  have  been  generally  accepted.  Since  most 
children  are  right-handed,  the  right  hand  and  arm  are  placed 
upon  the  desks  in  writing.  Light  coming  from  the  right  hand 
must  then  cast  the  shadow  of  the  hand  upon  the  writing 
surface.  For  this  reason  lighting  from  the  right  is  undesir- 
able. Wlien  from  left  and  right,  cross-lights  are  established 
which  are  confusing  to  the  eye.  Light  from  the  rear  is  unde- 
sirable because  of  its  serious  effect  on  the  eyes  of  the  teacher. 
As  was  stated  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  chapter,  it  should  be 
an  unbreakable  rule  that  no  blackboards  should  be  placed 
between  windows.  Therefore,  if  adequate  blackboard  space 
is  to  be  secured  the  windows  must  be  banked  on  one  side. 

Breeze  windows.  In  warm  climates  it  is  often  desirable 
to  place  narrow  windows,  known  as  "breeze  windows,"  close 
to  the  ceiling  at  the  back  of  the  room,  or  on  the  right  side 
opposite  the  main  windows.  These  breeze  windows  should 
be  hinged  on  the  lower  side,  and  closed  by  means  of  cords 
and  catches.  Each  window  should  be  made  tight  against 
driving  rains,  and  covered  permanently  with  an  opaque 
shade.  The  amount  of  draught  caused  by  these  windows 
may  be  regulated  by  changing  the  size  of  the  opening. 


NATURAL  LIGHTING  67 

Orientation.  Classrooms  should  be  lighted  from  the  east 
or  west.  Those  on  the  east  receive  the  sunlight  during  the 
early  part  of  the  morning,  but  after  about  ten  o'clock  the 
sun  has  risen  high  enough  so  that  direct  rays  no  longer  enter 
the  window.  Classrooms  on  the  west  receive  direct  rays  of 
sunshine  during  the  latter  part  of  the  afternoon.  For  this 
reason  it  will  often  be  found  wise  to  give  lower-grade  chil- 
dren, who  are  dismissed  at  an  early  hour,  the  western  rooms, 
and  upper-grade  children  eastern  rooms,  where  after  the 
first  hour  of  school  there  is  little  trouble  with  direct  sunshine. 

Glass  area.  In  northern  countries  the  actual  glass  area  of 
windows  should  never  be  less  than  one  fourth  the  floor  space. 
In  countries  of  the  temperate  zone  the  glass  area  may  be 
not  less  than  one  fifth,  although  one  fourth  is  preferable. 
In  the  tropics  it  is  probably  better  to  make  the  glass  area 
one  fifth  of  the  floor  space,  and  one  sixth  is  permissible. 
Wherever  the  sky-line  is  high,  the  air  filled  with  smoke,  or 
light  otherwise  obstructed,  the  window  surface  should  be 
correspondingly  increased.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
while  it  is  very  easy  to  exclude  unnecessary  light,  it  is  pecu- 
liarly hard  to  increase  light  when  windows  do  not  supply 
enough. 

Placing.  Windows  should  be  placed  in  batteries  along  the 
left  wall,  and  as  near  the  back  of  the  room  as  possible.  Often 
in  otherwise  very  well-arranged  buildings  one  will  find  the 
windows  evenly  spaced  along  the  side,  or  somewhat  too  far 
toward  the  front.  In  such  cases  the  front  blackboard,  on 
which  the  teacher  places  illustrations  and  explanations,  — 
probably  the  most  important  blackboard  in  the  room,  —  is 
frequently  subjected  to  a  glare  from  the  side  windows  which 
is  not  only  exceedingly  annoying  to  pupils,  but  is  actually 
harmful.  When  windows  are  placed  well  back  beyond  the 
first  row  of  seats  the  danger  of  such  glare  on  the  front  board 
is  removed. 


68  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Square  tops.  Windows  should  reach  within  six  inches  of 
the  ceiling,  and  should  be  finished  square  at  the  top.  It  has 
been  stated  that  one  half  of  the  sunlight  received  through 
the  window  comes  through  the  upper  third  of  the  glass.  If 
this  be  true,  the  upper  third  then  is  a  most  important  area, 
and  every  square  inch  should  be  utilized.  The  old-fashioned 
pointed  or  arched  window  cannot  be  afforded  in  the  modern 
school.  Even  curtain  rollers  or  other  fixtures  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  top  of  the  frame,  because  they  cut  off  light 
which  would  otherwise  find  its  way  into  the  room.  Since 
during  most  of  the  hours  of  the  day  sunlight  enters  the  room 
in  slanting  rays,  only  those  coming  through  the  upper  panes 
can  possibly  reach  the  farther  desks.  One  of  the  most  effec- 
tive ways  of  improving  lighting  at  these  desks  is  to  remove 
every  obstruction  from  the  upper  six  inches  of  the  window 
space. 

Height  from  floor.  The  lower  part  of  the  window  should 
be  not  less  than  three  and  not  more  than  four  feet  from  the 
floor.  Three  and  a  half  feet  is  a  height  commonly  chosen. 
If  the  sill  is  much  lower  than  this  the  outer  row  of  desks  re- 
ceives an  over-supply  of  sunlight,  which  in  some  cases  may 
be  painful  to  the  eyes  of  the  child  sitting  there.  Light  which 
enters  below  the  level  of  the  eye  is  bound  to  cause  irritation,  I 
because  it  over-stimulates  the  retina,  which  is  at  the  same/ 
time  striving  to  adapt  itself  to  the  light  which  falls  from  ovc 
head.  It  is  frequently  urged  also  that  when  the  windows  ar  \ 
too  low,  children  are  able  to  see  what  is  going  on  outside  wit!  i- 
out  rising  from  their  seats,  and  as  a  result  it  is  hard  for  the 
teacher  to  keep  their  attention  upon  what  she  is  doing.  If 
windows  are  higher  than  four  feet  it  is  usually  impossible 
to  provide  sufficient  glass  area  without  using  more  than  one 
side  of  the  room. 

Frames  and  supports.  Every  possible  square  inch  of  win- 
dow space  should  be  filled  with  glass.   This  means  that  the 


Fig.  12.  Remodeling  a  School  Building  to  improve  the 

Lighting 

The  Friendship  School,  at  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania 

(a)  Before  remodeling.   One  of  the  most  poorly  lighted  buildings  in  the  city 
(6)  After  remodeling.    The  lighting  conditions  have  been  remedied  to  the  great- 
est possible  degree 


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NATURAL  LIGHTING  69 

old  thick  piers  of  masonry  beween  windows  must  be  en- 
tirely done  away  with.  In  their  stead  come  narrow  steel 
piers,  beveled  on  inside  and  out,  so  that  slanting  rays  may 
be  allowed  to  enter.  Lintels,  mullions,  and  piers  are  all  of 
steel,  and  all  beveled,  so  that  every  obstruction  possible  is 
removed. 

Where  for  any  reason  lighting  is  obstructed,  it  is  fre- 
quently necessary  to  increase  the  height  of  the  ceiling. 
Although  twelve  and  one-half  feet  is  as  high  as  the  ordinary 
schoolroom  should  allow,  it  is  better  to  sacrifice  building 
costs  and  risk  fatigue  due  to  stair-climbing  than  to  run  the 
risk  of  eye-strain. 

Calculating  window  space.  In  making  calculations  for 
unilateral  lighting,  it  is  fairly  safe  to  allow  three  and  a  half 
feet  for  width  of  glass  for  each  window  and  one  foot  for 
mullions  between  windows.  In  the  ordinary  school  building 
such  mullions  must  be  made  of  steel  if  they  are  to  support 
the  weight  which  naturally  falls  upon  them.  A  steel  mullion 
of  twelve  inches  will  do  the  work  which  frequently  required 
brick  piers  three  or  four  feet  thick.  In  small  wooden  struc- 
tures of  one  story  satisfactory  twelve-inch  mullions  may  be 
made  of  hard  wood.  The  weight  of  walls  above  the  window 
may  also  be  caught  and  held  by  a  steel  beara  or  lintel  com- 
bined with  the  narrow  mullion. 

Prism  glass.  Prism  glass  is  an  exceedingly  useful  agent 
for  remaking  old  buildings  so  that  lighting  shall  be  increased. 
This  glass  is  so  made  that  instead  of  merely  allowing  rays  to 
pass  directly  through  it,  rays  which  otherwise  would  be  lost 
are  caught  and  bent,  so  that  the  amount  of  light  entering 
the  room  is  materially  increased.  Certain  forms  of  ribbed  or 
corrugated  glass,  which  are  highly  recommended  for  school 
purposes,  should  be  avoided  because  of  their  tendency  to 
reflect  light  in  bright  lines  and  so  tire  the  eye.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  secure  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  form  of  com- 


70  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

mercial  prism  glass.  When  used  in  classroom  windows, 
prism  glass  should  be  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  win- 
dows. It  is  rather  expensive,  hard  to  keep  clean  because 
of  its  many  ridges,  and  usually  should  not  be  installed  until 
it  has  been  made  evident  that  remodeling  the  window  or 
removing  outside  obstructions  is  out  of  the  question.  Prism 
glass  is  frequently  useful  for  lighting  dark  hallways,  toilets, 
basement  playrooms,  and  wardrobes. 

Overhead  lighting.  Very  recently  there  have  been  erected, 
in  different  parts  of  the  United  States,  one-story  school 
buildings  which  are  lighted  from  the  top.  Most  of  these 
have  what  is  known  as  "saw-tooth  lighting,"  that  is,  the 
roof  is  made  in  lengthwise  sections,  each  section  shaped  like 
a  saw  tooth,  with  one  side  slanting  and  the  other  verticaL 
The  vertical  side  is  made  of  glass.  Saw-tooth  lighting  is 
largely  used  in  factory  buildings,  because  it  has  been  found 
most  satisfactory  where  careful  handwork  is  being  carried 
on.  All  parts  of  the  room  are  lighted  equally  well,  and  there 
are  no  disturbing  shadows. 

For  school  purposes,  there  seem  to  be  four  objections  most 
commonly  raised  against  overhead  lighting  of  this  type.  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  claimed  that  the  sensation  of  being  con- 
fined by  four  solid  walls,  without  opportunity  to  see  what  is 
going  on  outside,  is  distinctly  unpleasant.  To  obviate  this 
difficulty  some  architects  insert  a  glass  paneled  door  or 
window  on  one  side,  with  a  curtain  which  can  be  drawn  at 
will  whenever  the  side  light  interferes  with  work. 

The  second  objection  is  that  many  of  these  buildings  are 
supplied  only  with  north  light,  and  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
never  enter.  This  is  such  an  exceedingly  serious  defect  in 
schoolhouse  construction  that  active  measures  should  be 
taken  for  the  frequent  admission  of  direct  rays,  either  by 
placing  the  glass  so  that  sunlight  will  be  admitted  before  or 
after  school  hours  (as,  for  example,  by  installing  windows 


NATURAL  LIGHTING  •  71 

facing  west  for  morning  classes),  or  else  by  providing  special 
sun  windows  which  are  kept  dark  when  classes  are  in  session. 
The  third  difficulty  encountered  with  overhead  lighting  is 
that  the  light  is  too  strong,  or  filled  with  bright  streaks, 
which  cause  eye-strain.  Such  a  condition  may  arise  from 
errors  in  location  or  installation,  such  as  having  the  glass 
face  toward  the  sunny  side.  Translucent  and  opaque  shades 
may  sometimes  be  needed,  much  as  they  are  used  in  the 
photographer's  studio,  to  cut  off  portions  of  the  light.  Some- 
times a  second  sheet  of  glass  is  installed  in  the  ceiling,  which 
helps  to  catch  and  diffuse  the  light. 

In  the  fourth  place,  where  buildings  are  in  exposed  loca- 
tions, care  must  be  taken  to  turn  the  windows  away  from 
prevailing  winter  winds,  because  otherwise  they  may  be 
covered  with  curtains  of  snow  or  ice  which  are  difficult  to 
clear  away.  It  is  important  that  the  roofs  be  easy  of  access, 
so  that  windows  may  easily  be  kept  clear  and  clean. 

Window  shades.  The  schoolroom  shade  is  used  to  exclude 
direct  rays  of  the  sun ;  only  rarely  —  as,  for  example,  when 
stereopticon  lectures  are  being  given  —  should  it  be  used  to 
exclude  ordinary  sunlight.  Therefore  the  opaque  shade  of 
green  or  black  commonly  used  in  schoolrooms  is  distinctly 
an  unwise  choice  unless  a  light-colored  shade  is  also  installed. 
When  annoying  rays  enter  the  room  and  shades  are  lowered 
say  two  and  a  half  feet  to  cut  them  off,  if  the  shades  are 
opaque  the  amount  of  light  received  by  desks  on  the  farther 
side  is  very  nearly  cut  in  half.  Mr.  Rowe,  who  was  one  of 
the  pioneers  in  studying  schoolroom  lighting,  suggests  shirt- 
ing, ecru,  or  light  cream-colored  twilling  for  shades,  and 
states  that  he  has  had  even  more  satisfactory  results  in  his 
experiments  with  light  sage  color,  which  is  dark  enough  to 
please  the  eye,  but  light  enough  to  provide  good  schoolroom 
illumination.  Care  should  be  taken  to  select  shades  which 
are  at  least  two  inches  wider  than  the  space  they  are  to 


72  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

cover.  If  narrower  widths  are  used,  the  shade  as  it  stirs  in 
the  wind  allows  long  streaks  of  sunlight  to  appear  at  one  side 
or  the  other,  and  is  frequently  a  source  of  great  annoyance 
for  which  no  remedy  can  be  found. 

It  is  of  prime  importance,  also,  that  some  scheme  be  de- 
vised whereby  any  portion  of  the  window  may  be  shaded 
without  necessarily  covering  the  portions  below  or  above. 
If  shades  are  fixed  at  the  top,  as  is  usually  the  case,  in  order 
to  cut  off  glare  from  the  row  of  desks  nearest  the  window, 
the  entire  glass  area  must  often  be  covered,  and  the  desks 
at  the  farther  side  of  the  room  are  unnecessarily  deprived  of 
light.  Exactly  the  opposite  thing  happens  when  shades  are 
fixed  at  the  bottom.  It  is  frequently  suggested  that  the  bet- 
ter way  is  to  fasten  two  rollers,  about  two  fifths  of  the  way 
up,  and  arrange  one  to  shade  the  upper  part  of  the  window 
and  the  other  the  lower.  Where  this  is  done  there  is  fre- 
quently difficulty  because  of  a  narrow  slit,  which  allows  a 
bright  ray  of  sunlight  to  enter  between  the  two  rollers.  One 
suggestion  for  remedying  such  a  difficulty  is  to  place  the 
rollers  so  that  the  upper  pulls  toward  the  bottom  of  the  win- 
dow and  the  lower  pulls  toward  the  top.  Probably  the  most 
satisfactory  arrangement  for  window  shades  is  the  adjust- 
able shade  which  has  but  recently  been  put  upon  the  market. 
The  roller  can  be  fastened  at  any  point  on  the  casing  by 
a  very  simple  mechanism,  and  the  shade  raised  or  lowered 
so  as  to  cover  any  desired  portion  of  the  glass. 

Any  shade  which  is  to  be  used  by  the  average  schoolroom 
teacher  must  be  of  exceedingly  simple  construction.  Few 
women  have  had  the  training  or  experience  in  solving 
mechanical  problems  which  come  almost  inevitably  into 
the  life  of  every  boy.  It  would  be  well  if  all  normal  schools 
established  classes  in  school  hygiene  which  would  include 
training  in  the  principles  and  operation  of  simple  heating, 
ventilating,  cleaning,  and  lighting  devices,  so  that  teachers 


NATURAL  LIGHTING  73 

would  not  find  themselves  helpless  before  minor  accidents 
to  schoolroom  equipment.  Teachers  should  not  only  know 
how  to  untangle  curtain  cords,  replace  them  on  pulleys,  and 
tighten  the  spring  in  the  old-fashioned  curtain  roller,  but 
they  should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  light- 
ing and  should  know  how  and  when  the  curtains  should 
be  used. 

Wooden  shutters,  Venetian  blinds,  folding  wooden  blinds, 
and  the  like,  should  on  no  account  be  placed  at  a  schoolroom 
window.  They  gather  dust,  seriously  darken  the  room,  get 
out  of  order,  cut  off  breezes,  and  frequently  allow  narrow 
bars  of  sunlight  to  stream  across  the  floor  and  irritate  the 
eyes  of  the  pupils. 

Color  schemes.  As  part  of  the  many  experiments  in  school- 
room lighting,  color  schemes  have  been  worked  out  for  walls 
and  ceiling  which  are  restful  to  the  eye  and  yet  do  not  absorb 
light.  The  plan  adopted  for  the  schools  of  Cleveland  is 
typical  of  the  more  advanced  practice.  In  Cleveland  the 
colors  used  in  classrooms  have  been  carefully  worked  out 
and  standardized.  Wood  is  of  dark  dull  finish,  ceilings  just 
off  white,  walls  creamy  gray,  dados  French  gray.  Rooms 
with  north  light  have  a  little  more  color  mixed  with  the  gray 
than  rooms  with  south  light. 1  Blackboards  are  of  the  natural 
dark  slate  color.  Desks  and  chairs  are  of  a  brownish  dull 
stain  which  does  not  reflect  light.  In  other  cities  buff  is 
frequently  used  instead  of  gray;  or  the  gray  is  mixed  with 
just  enough  green  to  give  it  an  olive  tone.  Reds,  oranges, 
and  browns  should  never  be  used,  although  a  pale  shade  of 
tan  is  permissible. 

Lighting  in  old  buildings.  If  the  lighting  of  an  old  building 
is  poor  the  following  suggestions  will  probably  be  helpful :  — 

1  It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  opinion  of  the  authors  of  the  present  work 
no  classrooms  should  be  planned  to  face  north  or  south.  Successful  archi- 
tects can  be  found,  however,  who  claim  that  north  light  is  by  far  the  more 
restful  and  should  be  utilized  for  study  purposes. 


74  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

a.  First,  wash  the  windows.  In  many  buildings  it  will  be 
found  that  an  astonishing  difference  is  made  in  the  amount 
of  light  admitted  to  schoolrooms  by  the  simple  expedient  of 
cleaning  windows  more  frequently.  Dust  and  smoke  gather 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  glass  and  form  a  curtain  which 
effectually  bars  out  entering  light  rays.  In  cities  where  the 
air  is  very  dirty,  it  may  be  necessary  to  double  or  treble  the 
frequency  with  which  windows  are  washed. 

b.  Investigate  to  see  whether  there  are  obstructions  out- 
side the  window,  such  as  hills,  trees,  or  office  buildings.  In 
some  cases  such  obstructions  may  be  removed. 

c.  Measure  the  amount  of  glass  area  and  compare  it  with 
floor  area.  Such  measurement  does  not  make  any  change  in 
the  conditions  found,  but  frequently  changes  the  attitude 
of  mind  of  the  persons  making  the  study. 

d.  See  whether  windows  may  be  raised  at  the  top.  Round 
or  arched  windows  may  often  be  made  square.  Sometimes 
ornamental  semi-circles  or  transoms  have  been  placed  above 
each  window,  and  when  these  are  replaced  by  squares  of 
plain  glass  the  light  area  is  measurably  increased.  Occasion- 
ally an  extra  window  may  be  added,  or  the  wide  piers  be- 
tween windows  replaced  by  narrow  metal  mullions,  and  the 
additional  area  filled  with  glass. 

e.  Notice  from  what  direction  the  light  comes.  Are  there 
windows  at  the  front?  at  the  right?  the  left?  the  back?  If 
light  enters  from  all  four  sides,  the  windows  at  the  front  and 
right  can  usually  be  covered  with  opaque  shades  or  filled  in 
entirely  with  blackboards.  Occasionally  the  entire  left  side 
can  be  remodeled  so  that  it  is  practically  one  huge  window, 
and  the  extra  windows  of  the  other  three  sides  filled  in. 
Sometimes  lighting  can  be  improved  simply  by  changing  the 
direction  in  which  the  children  face.  Very  little  can  be  done 
to  improve  conditions  in  rooms  lighted  solely  from  the  north 
or  from  the  south,  although  in  the  latter  case  some  help  may 


NATURAL  LIGHTING  75 

come  from  experimenting  with  different  types  of  window 
shades. 

/.  When  windows  are  equipped  with  wooden  blinds, 
opaque  shades,  or  the  like,  see  that  these  are  replaced  by 
new  shades  of  approved  construction  and  color.  Remove  the 
old-style  shades  whch  are  attached  at  top  or  bottom,  and 
substitute  the  combination  up-and-down  shades,  or,  better 
still,  the  new  type  of  adjustable  roller  which  can  be  made 
fast  at  any  point  of  the  window  frame. 

g.  If  windows  are  placed  too  near  the  floor,  cover  the 
lower  panes  with  opaque  shades.  Again,  if  windows  are  too 
near  the  blackboard  at  the  front,  keep  the  curtain  drawn 
on  all  bright  days. 

h.  Remove  all  blackboards  which  are  placed  between 
windows. 

i.  Sometimes  a  dark  room  may  be  made  lighter  by  re- 
painting the  walls  a  lighter  tint,  or  by  placing  curtains  on 
rollers  above  each  blackboard  and  keeping  them  drawn 
except  when  the  boards  are  actually  in  use. 

j.  Rooms  may  often  be  given  a  better  diffused  light  by 
substituting  a  good  quality  of  prism  glass  for  plain  glass  at 
the  top  of  the  window. 

k.  Occasionally  it  is  wise  to  introduce  glass  panels  into 
classroom  partitions,  or  doors.  The  cases  where  this  is  justi- 
fiable are,  however,  few  in  number,  because  the  practice 
usually  results  in  cross-lights,  or  patches  of  light  and  shadow. 
Door  panels  are  less  objectionable  than  wall  panels,  espe- 
cially when  they  open  into  rather  dark  halls.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  avoid  glare  through  such  panels,  such  as  might  be 
cast  by  a  hall  window  or  lighted  court. 

I.  If,  in  spite  of  various  efforts,  the  lighting  of  the  class- 
room continues  to  be  insufficient,  the  desks  farthest  from  the 
windows  should  be  abandoned  and  actually  removed  from 
the  room,  so  that  there  will  be  no  temptation  to  use  them. 


76  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

If  the  other  desks  are  insufficiently  illuminated,  the  room 
should  either  be  abandoned  or  equipped  with  artificial  lights 
and  used  for  some  school  purpose  other  than  regular  classes. 

2.  Artificial  lighting 

Recent  use  of  light  at  night.  It  is  not  until  very  recently 
that  city  schools  have  begun  to  be  used  at  night.  Since  early 
times  the  country  school  has  been  the  center  of  many  com- 
munity activities.  Religious  services  were  often  held  there, 
frequently  the  schoolhouse  was  used  for  committee  confer- 
ences or  town  meetings,  while  spelling-bees  and  singing- 
school  were  among  the  important  social  events  of  the  winter. 
Most  of  these  meetings  were  held  in  the  evening,  and  many 
people  who  were  educated  in  the  country  school  still  have 
vivid  memories  of  the  closely  packed  room,  with  every 
bench  filled,  and  rows  of  small  boys  along  the  window  ledges. 
Heat  was  furnished  —  sometimes  far  too  vigorously  —  by 
the  wood  stove  in  the  center  of  the  room,  and  high  on  each 
wall  swung  an  iron  bracket  holding  a  kerosene-oil  lamp, 
with  its  tin  reflector,  shedding  a  dim  yellow  light  over  the 
company. 

Within  the  past  decade  there  has  sprung  up  a  movement 
which  aims  to  make  all  school  buildings,  whether  in  city  or 
country,  available  for  public  purposes,  and  increasingly  we 
find  them  open  and  brightly  lighted  for  evening  classes, 
clubs,  athletic  contests,  dances,  concerts,  lectures,  and 
dramatic  presentations.  The  movement  which  has  as  its 
slogan,  "Wider  use  of  the  school  plant,"  has  instituted  many 
significant  changes  in  school  architecture.  One  of  these  is  the 
emphasis  which  it  has  laid  upon  the  necessity  for  adequate 
artificial  lighting.  City  school  buildings  were  sometimes 
lighted  even  before  this  time,  but  usually  the  work  was 
poorly  done,  and  had  as  its  main  purpose  the  supplementing 
of  window  lighting  on  rainy  days.    Now  lighting  plans  are 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHTING  77 

carefully  drafted  by  an  illuminating  engineer,  and  an 
attempt  is  made  to  forecast  possible  needs  of  the  future, 
and  to  render  each  room  a  comfortable,  well-lighted  work- 
shop by  night  as  well  as  by  day. 

Direct  glare.  In  planning  artificial  illuminating  several 
dangers  should  be  kept  in  mind.  In  the  first  place,  care 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  direct  rays  of  light  from  entering 
the  eye.  Probably  all  of  us  have  attended  public  lectures  in 
halls  where  clusters  of  unshaded  electric  lights  hung  from 
the  ceiling  above  the  speaker's  head,  or  branched  out  from 
supporting  pillars  directly  in  our  line  of  vision.  One  such 
evening  should  be  sufficient  to  convert  the  most  doubtful 
superintendent  or  school  board  member  to  the  necessity  for 
carefully  shaded  and  well-placed  lighting  in  the  public 
building.  There  is  no  excuse  for  permitting  direct  glare  in 
the  schoolroom. 

Lamps  should  be  placed  so  that  their  light  falls  from  above 
the  line  of  vision,  and  somewhat  to  the  left :  that  is,  no  lamp 
should  extend  below  an  imaginary  line  drawn  from  the  eye 
of  the  pupil  in  the  back  row  of  seats  to  a  point  about  two 
feet  above  the  blackboard,  and  all  fixtures  should  be  so 
located  that  they  shine  to  the  left  of  the  pupils,  and  so  avoid 
casting  shadow  of  head  and  shoulders  upon  the  desk. 

Indirect  glare.  In  the  second  place,  indirect  glare  should 
be  avoided.  Shiny  blackboards,  polished  woods,  glossy 
paint,  framed  pictures,  maps,  and  the  like,  tend  to  reflect 
light  into  the  eyes  of  the  pupil,  and  frequently  cause  dis- 
comfort or  even  severe  headache.  It  is  a  safe  rule  in  school- 
room furnishing  to  avoid  all  glossy  surfaces.  Desks  should 
receive  a  dull  finish.  Walls  should  be  slightly  roughened  or 
covered  with  dull  paint.  Where  highly  polished  surfaces 
cannot  be  avoided,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  with  maps  or 
blackboards,  special  pains  should  be  taken  to  prevent  reflec- 
tions from  lamps  by  careful  placing  and  shading. 


78  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Flickering.  Flickering  light  is  exceedingly  annoying,  and 
is  also  a  common  cause  of  eye-strain.  Most  people  find  that 
reading  for  several  hours  at  a  stretch  while  on  a  railroad 
journey  results  in  a  severe  headache,  although  reading  the 
same  length  of  time  at  home  produces  no  noticeable  fatigue. 
One  of  the  reasons  is  that,  due  to  the  motion  of  the  car  over 
its  not  too  even  roadbed,  both  book  and  light  are  constantly 
shifting,  and  as  the  eye  seeks  to  adapt  itself  to  these  continu- 
ous quick  changes  the  muscles  quickly  tire.  Similar  trouble 
is  found  by  the  hunter  who  seeks  to  write  letters  at  the 
open  camp-fire,  or  the  small  boy  who  peruses  his  forbidden 
novel  in  the  top  loft  of  the  barn  by  the  aid  of  a  flickering 
candle.  The  lamps  selected  for  schoolroom  use  must  be 
supplied  with  a  steady  amount  of  current  or  fuel;  open 
flames  must  be  protected  from  draughts;  and  fixtures  should 
be  so  installed  that  they  are  unaffected  by  sudden  jars  or 
vibrations. 

Intensity.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  provide  lighting 
of  too  great  intensity.  It  is  curiously  true  that  most  people 
feel  uncomfortable  unless  they  are  supplied  with  consider- 
ably more  light  than  is  actually  necessary  in  order  to  work 
well.  It  is  usually  possible  in  such  cases  to  compromise  by 
supplying  over-illumination  for  small  areas  directly  over  the 
work-table,  but  being  careful  not  to  plunge  the  whole  room 
into  intense  light. 

Shadows.  Shadows  on  desk  surfaces  are  undesirable,  be- 
cause they  make  it  difficult  for  pupils  to  see  their  work.  For 
this  reason  we  often  find  the  statement  that  all  shadows 
should  be  eliminated  from  the  artificially  lighted  classroom. 
As  opposed  to  this  theory  we  have  the  fact  that  it  is  actually 
restful  to  the  eye  to  have  somewhat  less  light  reflected  from 
surrounding  surfaces  than  from  the  work  area  itself.  For 
example,  it  is  more  restful  to  read  a  book  while  seated  at  a 
table  covered  with  a  dark  green  cloth  than  to  read  at  the 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHTING  79 

same  table  when  it  is  prepared  for  a  meal  and  covered  with 
smoothly  laundered  white  damask.  In  the  first  instance, 
most  of  the  light  reflected  into  the  eye  comes  from  the  pages 
of  the  book;  in  the  second,  light  is  pouring  up  from  the  entire 
table  area,  and  the  eye  muscles  seek  to  accommodate  them- 
selves to  two  diverse  sets  of  stimuli.  Where,  instead  of  the 
green  cloth  with  its  low  reflecting  power,  we  have  an  area 
of  shadow,  the  restful  effect  is  the  same,  and  for  the  same 
reason.  One  cause  of  the  popularity  of  the  student  lamp  is 
that  it  gives  a  high  light  within  a  narrow  area,  and  leaves 
the  rest  of  the  room  in  comfortable  semi-darkness,  so  that 
the  eve  is  freed  from  outside  stimuli. 

We  may  properly  say  that  whatever  surfaces  are  to 
engage  the  attention  of  the  pupil  should  be  free  from 
shadows  within  the  area  of  attention:  that  is,  the  front 
blackboard  at  which  all  children  look  must  be  treated  as  a 
unit,  because  the  writing  or  drawing  for  a  single  lesson  may 
cover  the  entire  area.  When  this  is  the  case  any  shadows 
falling  upon  the  blackboard  will  interfere  with  ease  in  read- 
ing, and  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  illumination 
is  spread  evenly  over  the  entire  surface. 

Contrasts.  As  a  corollary  of  the  preceding  discussion  it 
becomes  evident  that  sharp  contrasts  must  be  avoided 
wherever  possible  within  the  attention  area.  Many  sharp 
contrasts,  such  as  white  chalk  on  black  slate,  black  ink  on 
white  paper,  and  the  like,  are  necessary  for  the  conduct  of 
our  classes.  It  is  all  the  more  essential,  therefore,  that  sharp 
contrasts  which  are  not  necessary  be  most  carefully  elim- 
inated. For  example,  glistening  white  maps  should  be 
rolled  up  during  the  arithmetic  lesson.  Bookracks,  calen- 
dars, and  inkwells  of  polished  brass  should  either  be  re- 
moved from  the  teacher's  desk  or  hidden  from  the  sight 
of  the  pupils.  Exhibits  of  children's  work,  in  the  form  of 
drawings,   paper-cutting,   or  compositions,   should  not  be 


go  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

placed  along  the  front  blackboard,  because  they  form  too 
sharp  a  contrast  to  the  board  beneath.  If  they  are  placed 
along  the  side  or  back  of  the  room,  they  can  be  examined 
from  time  to  time  without  being  constantly  faced  and  thus 
contributing  to  eye-strain. 

Care  should  also  be  taken  to  remove  from  the  walls,  floor, 
and  ceiling  any  surfaces  which  tend  to  distract  the  eye. 
Any  bright  object  on  the  edge  of  the  field  of  vision  may 
cause  uneasiness  by  stimulating  the  eye  unduly.  A  shiny 
metal  fixture  on  the  window  curtain  slightly  behind  his 
shoulder  may  cause  the  reader  to  start  with  the  unpleasant 
sensation  of  something  about  to  strike  him  or  fall  upon  him. 
The  brain  is  peculiarly  alert  to  give  warning  of  bright  or 
moving  objects,  and  if  attention  is  to  be  concentrated  upon 
a  given  work  area  all  diverting  stimuli  outside  this  field 
should  be  avoided. 

Kerosene.  There  are  many  people  who  feel  that  the  old- 
fashioned  kerosene-oil  lamp  is  superior  to  any  other  form  of 
lighting.  They  admit  that  it  is  a  nuisance  to  clean  and  fill, 
that  it  gives  out  large  amounts  of  heat,  is  apt  to  smoke,  and 
is  a  frequent  cause  of  serious  fires;  but  they  claim  that  in 
spite  of  all  these  disadvantages  it  retains  superiority  because 
of  its  soft  yellow  light  which  is  pleasant  and  restful  to  work 
by  and  does  not  strain  the  eye  muscles.  It  is  probably  true 
that  the  oil  flame  is  much  less  trying  than  unshaded  gas  or 
electric  light,  but  there  is  no  excuse  for  providing  unshaded 
or  undiffused  light  of  any  sort,  and  the  dangers  of  kerosene 
lighting  are  so  numerous  that  it  should  be  prohibited  for 
public  buildings. 

The  kerosene-oil  lamp  gives  out  a  great  deal  of  heat,  and 
uses  up  large  amounts  of  oxygen.  People  who  habitually 
use  this  method  of  lighting  are  so  accustomed  to  it  that  they 
are  hardly  aware  of  its  evil  effects.  City  people,  however, 
who  return  to  the  old  homestead  for  the  Christmas  holidays, 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHTING  81 

and  are  given  a  portable  oil  heater  to  warm  their  bedrooms 
into  some  semblance  of  steam-heated  apartments,  find  that, 
although  the  heat  pours  out  with  incredible  rapidity,  the 
air  soon  becomes  so  stifling  that  if  headaches  are  to  be 
avoided  windows  must  be  thrown  open  and  fresh  supplies 
of  frosty  air  allowed  to  enter.  Even  with  windows  open  the 
room  is  filled  with  the  peculiar  odor  of  burning  kerosene,  and 
not  infrequently  the  flame  climbs  higher  and  higher  until, 
with  scarcely  any  warning,  a  dense  column  of  black  smoke 
pours  upwards  toward  the  ceiling.  The  stove  rarely  does 
explode,  but  it  always  looks  as  if  it  were  going  to.  Oil  lamps 
are  fully  as  dangerous  as  oil  heaters;  they  have  long  ago 
been  discarded  in  city  schools,  and  should  no  longer  be 
tolerated  in  school  buildings  of  rural  communities. 

The  increased  number  of  electric  companies  with  their 
radiating  interurban  lines  afford  electric  light  to  up-to-date 
farmers,  and  many  schoolhouses  could  be  connected  with 
such  circuits.  Many  parts  of  the  country  have  local  supplies 
of  natural  gas  which  could  be  used  in  the  rural  school;  and 
when  neither  gas  nor  electricity  is  available  the  acetylene 
arc  lamp  will  be  found  markedly  superior  to  the  kerosene 
flame. 

Acetylene  gas.  Acetylene  gas  is  produced  by  bringing 
calcium  carbide  in  contact  with  water,  and  thus  liberating 
the  carbon  which  joins  with  the  hydrogen  of  the  water  and 
forms  gas.  One  pound  of  calcium  carbide  yields  about  five 
cubic  feet  of  gas.  The  light  given  off  by  an  acetylene  lamp 
is  nearer  the  quality  of  sunlight  than  any  other  artificial 
illuminant.  The  human  eye  has  been  adapting  itself  to 
sunlight  for  many  thousands  of  years,  and  naturally  can  do 
its  work  better  in  a  sunlit  room  than  in  any  other.  Illum- 
inating engineers,  knowing  this,  have  long  sought  to  procure 
some  form  of  artificial  illumination  which  should  approach 
in  color  and  quality  the  sun's  rays;  and,  while  they  are  not 


82  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

yet  satisfied,  they  have  found  that  acetylene  gas  comes 
nearer  to  meeting  this  demand  than  any  other  artificial 
light. 

The  illuminating  power  of  acetylene  is  ten  times  that  of 
city  gas.  A.  C.  Morrison,  in  the  Scientific  American,  says: 
"Reduced  to  practical  figures,  a  half -foot  burner  supplied 
by  acetylene  will  give  greater  illumination  than  a  five-foot 
burner  supplied  by  city  gas."  The  cost  is  not  excessive. 
A  plant  with  a  fifty -light  capacity  can  be  installed  for  two 
hundred  dollars.  The  carbide  can  be  otained  at  about 
four  cents  a  pound.  One  pound  of  calcium  carbide  yields 
about  five  cubic  feet  of  gas,  so  that  one  thousand  cubic  feet 
of  gas  costs  about  eight  dollars.  In  terms  of  illumination 
one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  acetylene  at  eight  dollars  equals 
ten  thousand  cubic  feet  of  city  gas  at  eighty  cents  per  one 
thousand  cubic  feet,  which  is,  of  course,  cheap  illumination. 

Many  people  will  hesitate  about  installing  an  acetylene 
plant  on  the  ground  that  it  is  exceedingly  dangerous.  In 
fact  there  are  certain  districts  where  local  regulations  pro- 
hibit its  use.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  great  strides  have  been 
made  since  the  days  when  acetylene  generators  were  first 
placed  on  the  market,  and  they  have  now  been  rendered 
so  safe  that  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Insurance  Under- 
writers has  drawn  up  regulations  whereby  plants  may  be 
installed  in  the  basements  of  buildings  carrying  insurance, 
without  increasing  the  rate. 

Installing  an  acetylene  plant.  The  generator  must  be 
cared  for  properly.  Its  care  is  less  than  that  necessary  for 
a  kerosene  lamp,  its  efficiency  is  much  greater,  and  its  use 
should  always  be  insisted  upon  in  lighting  a  schoolroom 
where  gas  and  electricity  are  not  available.  In  erecting  the 
acetylene  apparatus  a  solid  foundation  of  brick,  stone,  con- 
crete, or  heavy  timbers  should  be  used.  The  machine  must 
be  set  level,  to  obviate  any  strain  on  generator  or  connec- 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHTING  83 

tions.  Each  generator  should  be  provided  with  an  escape 
or  relief  pipe,  not  less  than  three  quarters  of  an  inch  inside 
diameter,  and  carried  outside  the  building  to  a  point  remote 
from  the  windows,  and  at  least  twelve  feet  above  the  ground. 
The  opening  of  this  pipe  should  be  protected  by  a  hood. 
Generators  may  be  installed  where  running  water  is  not 
available. 

The  machine  should  have  a  capacity  sufficient  to  furnish 
gas  continuously  for  a  lighting  period  of  at  least  five  hours. 
The  recharging  of  a  generator  is  an  operation  which  occu- 
pies on  an  average  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  generator  and  the  number  of  lights.  It  can  be 
conservatively  estimated  that  a  generator  has  to  be  re- 
charged once  in  three  to  six  weeks.  In  determining  charges, 
lump  carbide  should  be  estimated  as  capable  of  producing 
about  five  cubic  feet  of  gas  per  pound,  and  burners  should 
be  considered  as  requiring  at  least  twenty -five  per  cent  more 
than  their  rated  consumption  of  gas. 

No  pet-cocks  should  be  used  in  piping,  and  all  piping 
should  be  arranged  to  drain  any  moisture  back  into  the 
generator.  The  following  schedule  of  piping  is  recom- 
mended :  — 

Three-eighths-inch  pipe,  twenty-six  feet,  three  burners. 
One-half-inch  pipe,  thirty  feet,  six  burners. 
Three-fourths-inch  pipe,  fifty  feet,  twenty  burners. 

All  piping  should  be  tested  after  installing. 

We  have  gone  at  some  length  into  the  question  of  acety- 
lene lighting,  because  where  the  acetylene  system  is  used 
gas  must  be  generated  in  or  near  the  building,  and  the  school 
authorities  must  be  responsible  for  running  the  plant. 
Where  gas  or  electricity  are  used  most  of  the  work  of  gen- 
erating power,  installing  fixtures,  and  inspecting  falls  upon 
other  shoulders  than  those  of  the  school  men. 
•    Direct  lighting.   By  direct  lighting  is  meant  that  system 


84  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

in  which  light  rays  are  thrown  directly  upon  the  object  to 
be  illuminated.  This  is  the  most  common  form  of  lighting, 
and  by  many  people  is  considered  superior  to  the  newer 
methods  of  semi-direct  or  indirect  lighting.  In  direct  light- 
ing lamps  should  be  above  the  oblique  plane  subtended 
from  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  in  the  back  row  to  a  horizontal 
line  two  feet  above  the  top  of  the  blackboard.  Instead  of 
being  arranged  in  symmetrical  rows  down  the  center  and 
halfway  across  the  ceiling  on  each  side,  fixtures  should  be 
placed  a  foot  or  more  to  the  left,  so  that  the  light  falls  more 
strongly  from  the  left  side  of  the  room,  and  should  be 
"staggered,"  which  means  placing  lamps  diagonally  across 
from  each  other  instead  of  directly  opposite.  Every  fixture 
should  be  equipped  with  glass  shades  designed  to  secure 
wide  diffusion  of  light  and  prevent  glare. 

Laboratories,  art-rooms,  and  other  rooms  in  which  there 
is  no  need  for  group  discussion,  and  where  each  member  of 
the  class  works  by  himself,  may  frequently  be  lighted  to 
good  effect  by  drop  lamps  suspended  above  the  desks.  Where 
this  is  done  the  lamp  should  hang  slightly  to  the  left  of  the 
desk,  and  should  be  fitted  with  an  opaque  shade  which 
will  prevent  the  light  shining  into  the  eyes  of  other  pupils. 
Electric  bulbs  used  in  drop  lights  should  be  frosted. 

Indirect  fighting.  This  plan  throws  the  light  upon  a 
highly  reflecting  surface  which  diffuses  it  throughout  the 
room.  It  effectually  prevents  direct  rays  from  striking  the 
eye.  The  lights  are  usually  placed  in  an  opaque  bowl 
which  is  suspended  from  the  ceiling.  A  reflecting  surface 
is  secured  either  by  suspending  a  polished  plate  above  the 
bowl  or  by  painting  the  ceiling  itself  white,  so  that  it  casts 
down  into  the  room  the  rays  which  are  thrown  against  it 
from  the  lamps.  Sometimes  good  effects  are  secured  by 
placing  rows  of  lights  around  the  walls  or  in  the  ceiling  in 
such  a  way  that  they  are  hidden  from  the  eyes  of  those 


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ARTIFICIAL  LIGHTING  85 

below  by  ornamental  mouldings.  This  method  is  coming 
rapidly  into  favor  for  lighting  school  auditoriums. 

There  are  many  objections  to  be  urged  against  indirect 
systems  of  illumination.  For  example,  as  was  noted  previ- 
ously in  the  discussion  of  intensity  and  contrast,  it  is  less 
tiring  to  work  over  an  illuminated  surface  if  the  surround- 
ing surfaces  are  somewhat  darker  than  where  the  same 
intensity  prevails.  In  many  offices  where  approved  systems 
of  indirect  lighting  have  been  installed,  it  will  be  found  — 
provided  sufficient  funds  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  office 
workers  —  that  desk  after  desk  is  provided  with  a  supple- 
mentary portable  desk-lamp  because  the  indirect  overhead 
illumination  does  not  seem  to  the  occupants  sufficient  for 
their  needs.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  actual  tests  in  most  of 
these  offices  would  show  an  ample  number  of  foot  candles 
in  every  part  of  the  room.  A  possible  explanation  of  the 
difficulty  may  be  that  the  illumination  of  the  working  sur- 
face is  sufficient,  but  the  illumination  of  surrounding  sur- 
faces is  too  intense  and  is  unrelieved  by  shadows.  Normal 
sunlight  casts  shadows,  and  the  eye  has  become  accustomed 
to  concentrate  its  attention  upon  the  most  highly  illumi- 
nated areas,  while  relieved  from  equally  intense  stimuli 
without  the  area  by  shadows  and  varying  colors.  Indirect 
illumination  gives  the  same  intensity  of  light  in  all  parts  of 
the  room,  the  absence  of  shadows  is  both  wearying  to  the 
eye  and  possesses  a  somewhat  weird  appearance,  and  as  a 
result  the  occupants  are  frequently  uncomfortable.  This  cu- 
rious physical  and  psychological  effect  is  much  less  notice- 
able where  people  are  talking  or  listening  than  in  rooms 
where  the  occupants  are  busy  with  individual  pieces  of 
work  requiring  close  use  of  the  eyes.  It  is  very  probably 
true  that  indirect  lighting  will  find  its  chief  usefulness  in 
illuminating  churches,  theaters,  and  auditoriums. 

Semi-indirect  lighting.   It  is  here  sought  to  secure  the  ad- 


86  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

vantages  of  direct  and  indirect  lighting  and  to  avoid  the 
disadvantages  of  each.  Semi-indirect  lighting  is  a  plan 
whereby  the  lights  are  placed  in  a  bowl  and  reflected  from 
above,  as  in  the  indirect,  but  the  bowl  is  made  of  trans- 
lucent material,  and  some  of  the  light  shines  through.  In 
semi-indirect  lighting  shadows  are  more  noticeable,  and  the 
effect  seems  somewhat  more  pleasant. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  sort  of  lighting  is  best  for  schools  operated  on  the  one-session 
plan? 

2.  What  instruments  are  used  for  measuring  light?  Compare  as  to  prin- 
ciple involved,  simplicity,  applicability  to  school  conditions,  cost. 

S.  How  many  foot  candles  are  necessary  for  good  illumination?  Does 
this  apply  to  all  types  of  work?  Should  light  be  measured  near  window, 
at  center  of  room,  farthest  corner?  On  bright  day,  average,  or  dark? 
Winter  or  summer?   Why? 

4.  Does  the  location  of  windows  on  one,  two,  or  three  sides  affect  the 
rules  for  classroom  width?   How? 

5.  In  one  school  system  left  and  front  lighting  was  chosen  in  preference 
to  right  and  back.   How  would  you  undertake  to  argue  this  case? 

6.  Make  a  study  of  different  types  of  windows;  noting  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  each. 

7.  Visit  school  buildings  on  bright  days  and  note  the  adjustment  of  win- 
dow shades.  How  far  does  supplying  the  right  sort  of  shade  insure 
good  lighting  day  by  day  in  the  classroom? 

8.  What  are  the  more  common  methods  of  gas  and  electric  lighting? 
Compare. 

9.  If  plants  are  to  be  grown  in  classrooms,  where  should  they  be  placed? 
Are  window  boxes  or  hanging  plants  the  more  desirable? 

10.  If  you  are  not  already  familiar  with  the  plan,  visit  any  buildings  (fac- 
tories, schools,  and  the  like)  in  your  vicinity,  which  are  equipped  with 
overhead  saw-tooth  lighting.  Note  differences  from  ordinary  side 
lighting. 

11.  How  often  should  prism  glass  be  cleaned?   Why? 

12.  If  acetylene  gas  gives  so  satisfactory  a  light,  why  is  it  not  generally 
recommended  for  city  school  buildings? 


ARTIFICIAL  LIGHTING  87 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Ayres,    Leonard   P.   Public   Schools   of  Springfield,  Illinois.   Division  of 
Education,  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York.  (1914.) 
Interesting  report  on  illumination  tests. 

Bruce,  W.  G.   School  Architecture.   (Milwaukee,  1910.) 
Brief  discussion  of  the  subject  of  lighting. 

Burgerstein,  Leo.   School  Hygiene.   Translated  by  B.  L.  Stevenson  and  A. 
L.  Von  der  Osten.   F.  A.  Stokes  Company,  New  York.    (1915.) 

Several  short  sections  of  value. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.    "The  School  Plant";  in  Report  of  Portland  School 
Survey.    (Portland,  Oregon,  1913.) 
Good  section  on  lighting. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.    School  Hygiene.    The  Macmillan  Company,    New 
York.   (1913.) 
Good  chapter  on  the  lighting  of  schoolhouses. 

Rowe,  S.  H.    The  Lighting  of  Schoolrooms.  Longmans,  Green  &  Company, 
New  York.    (1904.) 

Bather  out-of-date,  but  still  exceedingly  useful. 

Terman,  L.  M.    Chapter  on  "Buildings";  in  the  Sail  Lake  City  School 
Survey.    (1915.) 
Interesting  discussion  of  lighting. 


CHAPTER  VI 

WATER  SUPPLY 

Every  school  needs  a  bountiful  supply  of  good  water. 
City  schools  are  obliged  to  depend  upon  the  municipal  water 
system,  and  if  the  water  contains  impurities  schools  can  do 
little  except  complain  to  the  authorities  and  arouse  protests 
among  doctors  and  parents.  Practically  no  system  of  arti- 
ficial filtration  on  the  premises  can  be  relied  on  to  purify 
infected  water;  and  in  localities  where  the  supply  is  danger- 
ously bad,  recourse  must  be  had  either  to  bottled  water, 
brought  from  sources  known  to  be  pure,  or  to  the  regular 
city  water  boiled  and  afterwards  chilled.  For  the  large  city 
school  such  a  proceeding  is  well-nigh  impossible,  and  the 
school  lies  at  the  mercy  of  the  city  authorities.  Fortunately 
public  health  boards  are  now  thoroughly  awake  to  the 
perils  of  impure  drinking-water,  and  most  cities  are  under 
constant  and  careful  supervision.  It  is  the  country  children 
who  are  exposed  to  the  most  serious  dangers  of  infection 
from  this  source. 

Springs  and  wells.  Most  country  schools  obtain  their 
supply  of  drinking-water  from  springs  or  wells  on  the 
premises,  or  on  adjoining  farms.  All  such  water  has  origi- 
nally fallen  on  the  surface  as  rain  or  snow,  gradually  trickled 
down  into  the  earth,  and  reached  a  pocket  in  the  ground 
where  it  has  accumulated  in  the  form  of  a  small  underground 
stream.  Where  this  stream  breaks  forth  at  a  lower  point  of 
the  earth's  surface  it  is  called  a  spring.  Where  it  is  tapped 
by  digging  or  boring  it  is  called  a  well.  Springs  are  apt  to 
find  their  water  channels  much  nearer  to  the  earth's  surface 
than  wells,  and  the  chances  that  the  surface  water  has  been 


WATER  SUPPLY  89 

thoroughly  filtered  are  correspondingly  less.  Springs  which 
are  near  swampy  ground  are  very  frequently  contaminated. 
Whenever  they  are  in  low  places  near  barnyards  or  pastures 
the  chances  are  large  that  the  water  will  be  heavily  laden 
with  particles  of  decomposing  manure  and  other  farmyard 
waste. 

Where  springs  have  their  outlet  in  open  pools  it  will  be 
found  that,  unless  great  care  is  taken  to  prevent  animals  and 
human  beings  from  making  free  with  the  water,  the  pool  be- 
comes quickly  laden  with  impurities.  In  the  same  way  wells 
sometimes  receive  the  greater  part  of  their  water  from  the 
drainings  of  privies,  barnyards,  and  the  like.  There  seems 
to  be  a  tendency  among  country  people  to  feel  that  water 
which  comes  up  out  of  the  earth  must  be  purer  than  that 
which  flows  upon  its  surface.  Sometimes  they  are  right;  but 
frequently  they  are  perilously  wrong.  The  quality  of  water 
in  spring  and  well  depends  largely  upon  the  geological  for- 
mation of  the  ground  around  it.  For  example,  sandy  loam 
permits  of  free  ventilation  and  acts  as  a  natural  filter,  but 
clay  or  rock  is  like  a  huge  drain  pipe  which  conserves  all  the 
impurities  of  the  water,  and  may  carry  them  for  miles.  In 
planning  where  to  sink  a  well,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to 
learn  something  about  the  formation  of  the  soil  in  that 
region.  It  is  always  safe  to  lay  down  the  rule  that  no  water 
shall  be  used  which  comes  fiom  a  lower  level  than  a  barn, 
privy,  or  other  contaminating  agent.  Observance  of  this 
rule  will  not  insure  clean  water,  but  neglect  will  result  in  an 
impure  water  supply  nine  chances  out  of  ten. 

Carrying  water  by  hand.  Water  may  be  brought  to  the 
school  by  pipes  from  a  reservoir,  by  hand  or  machine  pumps, 
or  by  being  carried  in  pails.  The  rural  school  should  never 
rely  on  having  water  fetched  in  small  quantities,  unless  there 
is  actually  no  other  means  of  securing  it.  When  this  is  un- 
fortunately the  case,  large  buckets  should  be  secured,  of  gal- 


90  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

vanized  iron,  with  tops  which  can  be  fastened  securely  in 
place.  Arrangements  should  be  made  with  a  responsible 
agent  whereby  these  buckets  are  filled  with  fresh  water  daily 
and  delivered  at  the  school.  On  days  when  the  school  is  not 
in  session  these  buckets  should  be  carefully  cleaned  and 
exposed  to  the  full  glare  of  the  sun.  It  is  important  that  the 
old  method  of  sending  two  of  the  boys  each  morning  with 
a  wooden  pail  to  the  neighboring  well  for  water  should  be 
abolished,  for  under  such  circumstances  half  the  supply  is 
spilled  before  the  school  is  reached,  the  pails  are  uncovered 
and  often  dirty,  and  the  water  is  frequently  contaminated. 
With  pails  small  enough  so  that  they  can  be  carried  for  some 
distance  by  the  growing  boy,  the  water  rapidly  becomes 
warm  and  uninviting;  and,  in  addition,  the  supply  is  so 
small  that  children  are  usually  discouraged  from  using  it 
freely  to  wash  their  hands  and  faces. 

The  school  well.  A  well  on  the  school  grounds  is  almost 
always  preferable  to  a  spring  or  to  the  offices  of  kindly  neigh- 
bors. If  due  care  is  taken  to  locate  the  well  properly,  and  to 
make  it  impervious  to  surface  infiltration,  the  water  can 
be  kept  sweet  and  pure  throughout  the  summer  months  — 
when  many  claim  school  wells  deteriorate  because  they  are 
not  being  used  —  and  a  satisfactory  water  supply  will  be  ob- 
tained for  all  school  purposes.  This  means,  however,  that 
the  well  must  be  constructed  with  greater  care  than  is  usu- 
ally exercised.  A  dug  well  can  be  made  safe;  but  to  do  so  is 
expensive,  for  it  must  be  deep  enough  to  reach  below  the 
line  of  surface  infiltration,  must  be  securely  covered,  and 
the  casing  made  water-tight  down  to  the  lowest  water-line. 
A  driven  well  can  usually  be  sunk  much  deeper,  so  that  the 
opportunities  for  filtering  water  before  it  reaches  the  well  are 
greater;  and  it  is  very  easy  to  protect  the  sides  from  surface 
drainage.  A  driven  well  is  frequently  materially  less  expen- 
sive than  a  properly  constructed  dug  well,  and  is,  therefore, 


WATER  SUPPLY  91 

to  be  preferred  for  school  purposes.  Sometimes  a  driven  well 
may  be  bored  through  a  hard  layer  of  clay  or  rock,  into  a 
water-course  sealed  up  below  it.  In  such  cases  the  source  of 
the  water  is  usually  not  near  the  school  building,  but  may 
come  from  a  spot  several  miles  away.  No  matter  whether 
the  well  be  dug  or  driven,  it  must  be  remembered  that  if 
the  water  which  supplies  it  comes  from  a  contaminated 
source  no  skill  in  construction  will  render  it  safe.  A  good 
well  conserves  purity,  but  does  not  make  it. 

Every  well  should  be  covered  at  the  top.  There  is  some- 
thing about  the  open  well  which  is  peculiarly  tempting,  and 
each  child  who  passes  feels  the  necessity  of  flinging  down  a 
stone  or  stick  to  hear  it  strike.  Apple  cores,  rotten  tomatoes, 
and  even  small  dead  animals  find  the  uncovered  well  a 
handy  receptacle;  and  every  such  offering  adds  to  the  im- 
purity of  the  water.  The  well  should  be  provided  with  a 
cement  top  which  keeps  out  dirt  and,  when  desirable,  fur- 
nishes a  platform  for  a  force  pump  by  which  water  may  be 
drawn  to  the  surface.  A  small  pressure  tank  can  easily  be 
attached  to  the  pump,  so  that  water  is  always  at  hand  for 
a  bubbling  fountain.  Provision  should  also  be  made  for 
carrying  off  the  waste  water  by  pipes  so  that  it  can  neither 
flow  back  into  the  well  nor  dampen  the  surrounding  earth, 
and  so  render  it  unfit  to  walk  on. 

Water  pressure.  It  is  exceedingly  desirable  that  every 
school  be  supplied  with  water  under  pressure.  City  schools 
usually  have  no  trouble  here,  but  there  are  very  few  country 
schools  which  are  so  equipped.  Water  pressure  makes  pos- 
sible indoor  sanitary  toilets,  which  are  greatly  needed  in  the 
country.  It  also  provides  plentiful  opportunity  for  washing 
hands  and  faces,  for  keeping  drinking-water  fresh  and  cool, 
for  use  in  cooking,  and  even  for  the  shower  bath  which  is 
coming  to  be  a  necessary  part  of  rural-school  equipment.  In 
addition  a  bountiful  water  supply  under  pressure  is  one  of 


92  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

the  safest  provisions  against  fire.  Every  rural  school  not 
otherwise  supplied  with  water  under  pressure  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  tank  or  reservoir  at  a  considerable  height,  to 
which  water  can  be  pumped  by  windmill,  gasoline  engine,  or 
some  other  motive  power,  and  from  which  pipes  distrib- 
ute the  water,  as  needed,  to  various  parts  of  the  building. 
Another  form,  used  in  very  cold  countries,  is  what  is  known 
as  the  "Kewanee  system,"  by  means  of  which  a  galvanized 
iron  tank  is  buried  in  the  ground  beneath  the  school  build- 
ing, and  the  water  put  into  the  tank  under  pressure  by 
means  of  a  gasoline  engine,  also  in  the  basement  of  the 
school. 

The  individual  cup.  Seven  years  ago  not  a  State  in  the 
Union  had  passed  a  legislative  enactment  against  the  com- 
mon drinking-cup.  To-day  over  half  the  States  have  laws 
or  regulations  against  it,  and  more  are  added  every  year. 
Within  half  a  decade  we  have  seen  the  passing  of  the  tin 
cup  fastened  by  a  chain  in  the  railroad  car,  the  depot,  and 
the  department  store,  and  the  introduction  of  the  col- 
lapsible paper  cup.  At  first  the  public  schools  sought  to 
supplant  the  common  drinking-cup  by  individual  glasses, 
brought  from  home  and  labeled  with  the  child's  name;  but 
it  was  speedily  found  that  children  have  little  fear  of  germs 
and  are  generous  with  their  possessions,  so  that  it  was  con- 
sidered a  mark  of  friendship  to  exchange  cups.  The  paper 
cup,  to  be  used  once  and  then  discarded,  was  fairly  satis- 
factory, but  involved  some  expense,  and  the  discarded  cups 
were  apt  to  make  an  untidy  appearance.  Finally  various 
types  of  bubbling  fountains  —  previously  used  in  parks  and 
outdoor  playgrounds  —  were  adapted  to  school  uses.  Now 
the  bubbling  fountain  has  become  a  standard  piece  of  school- 
house  equipment. 

Bubbling  fountains.  In  large  schools  a  fountain  should 
be  placed  on  each  floor  of  the  building,  in  the  basement, 


WATER  SUrPLY  93 

and  in  the  playground.  Playground  fountains  should  be 
disconnected  during  freezing  weather.  There  should  be  at 
least  one  fountain  installed  for  every  seventy  children  in 
attendance,  and  a  better  standard  is  one  for  every  forty 
children.  The  bubbling  fountain  should  present  a  stream 
two  inches  high,  and  be  so  arranged  that  waste  water  is 
carried  off  without  mixing  with  the  fresh.  It  should  be  pro- 
tected by  a  frame  which  prevents  the  mouth  from  coming 
in  contact  with  the  outlet,  but  care  should  be  taken  to 
make  this  frame  in  such  a  way  that  children  will  not  run 
any  danger  of  breaking  their  teeth  upon  it.  There  is  some- 
thing so  peculiarly  helpless  in  the  appearance  of  another 
person  bending  over  a  drinking  fountain  that  most  normal 
children,  and  some  adults,  are  filled  with  a  sudden  strong 
desire  to  push  the  drinker's  head  down  into  the  water.  If 
the  fountain  is  not  designed  to  protect  the  child  against  just 
such  accidents  painful  injuries  may  sometimes  result. 

Another  tendency  against  which  precautions  should  be 
taken  is  that  which  children  have  of  covering  up  several 
holes  in  a  battery  of  fountains  in  order  to  concentrate  water 
pressure  on  one,  and  so  produce  a  high  forceful  stream.  If 
such  a  result  can  be  produced  at  the  moment  when  a  com- 
panion is  bending  over  in  the  act  of  drinking  the  victim  is 
sure  to  receive  a  drenching.  Most  of  the  newer  fountains 
are  so  arranged  that  any  such  manipulation  of  water  is  out 
of  the  question. 

The  fountain  should  be  made  of  porcelain,  nickel,  or 
some  other  substance  which  is  well  protected  against  rust 
or  corrosion;  and  should  be  simple  in  design,  so  that  it  will 
not  get  out  of  order.  The  key  which  turns  on  the  water 
should  be  plainly  visible  and  easy  in  action,  so  that  children 
can  work  it  without  having  to  use  both  hands.  Some  sim- 
ple device  should  be  attached  for  regulating  the  size  of 
the  stream.    The  pipe  which  carries  off  waste  water  should 


94  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

be  so  arranged  that  it  will  not  readily  become  clogged  with 
paper,  twine,  or  other  refuse. 

Home-made  fountains.  Dr.  Dresslar  suggests  that  in 
schools  where  the  standard  manufactured  bubbling  foun- 
tains seem  too  expensive,  it  is  possible  to  make  a  fairly  good 
substitute  by  connecting  the  main  service  pipe,  at  the  middle 
point  of  a  horizontal  length  of  nickel-covered  water  pipe, 
and  closing  both  ends.  Small  holes  should  then  be  pierced, 
about  thirty  inches  apart,  along  the  length  of  this  pipe,  each 
slightly  toward  the  front  so  that  a  stream  of  water  passing 
through  would  not  fall  back  into  its  own  hole.  A  key  should 
control  the  stream.  Below  the  bubblers  should  be  placed  a 
sink  or  basin  to  carry  away  the  waste  water.  These  bubblers 
bring  the  children  rather  close  together,  so  that  disturbances 
are  likely  to  follow,  and  they  are  so  constructed  that  water 
may  be  squirted  in  long  streams  by  manipulating  the  open- 
ings. Moreover,  there  is  no  means  of  insuring  that  children 
will  not  place  their  mouths  directly  in  contact  with  the 
pipe.  The  fountains  so  constructed  are  distinctly  inferior  to 
many  designs  on  the  market,  and  should  only  be  installed 
where  others  cannot  be  procured. 

Cooler  attachments.  For  rural  schools  without  water 
pressure,  bubbling  fountains  may  be  secured  to  fit  on  small 
tanks  or  coolers.  The  rules  covering  their  construction  are 
the  same  as  those  for  pressure  systems;  except  that  while 
in  the  latter  cases  fountains  are  allowed  to  run  all  the  time 
during  certain  periods,  —  for  example,  at  recess,  —  where  the 
supply  of  water  is  limited  as  in  the  former  case,  the  fountain 
should  close  automatically  as  soon  as  the  child  finishes  drinking. 

Height  of  fountains.  A  common  fault  in  installing  drink- 
ing-fountains  is  to  make  them  either  too  high  or  too  low. 
Primary  children  sometimes  have  to  be  lifted  up  in  order  to 
drink,  while  tall  high-school  students  are  made  to  feel  un- 
necessarily awkward  by  fountains  which  would  be  just  the 


WATER  SUPPLY  95 

right  height  for  their  little  brothers  or  sisters.  A  series  of 
simple  experiments  is  needed  to  determine  standards  for 
heights  of  fountains,  such  as  have  already  been  determined 
for  the  placing  of  blackboards. 

The  habit  of  cleanliness.  Space  is  given  in  the  next  chap- 
ter to  the  reasons  why  facilities  for  washing  the  hands 
should  be  provided  in  connection  with  every  toilet-room. 
The  habit  of  cleanliness  can  only  be  established  through 
giving  children  a  clear  understanding  of  why  it  is  desirable, 
and  then  seeing  to  it  that  washing  actually  takes  place. 
Mere  supervision  and  enforcement  of  the  rule  will  be  of 
comparatively  little  value  unless  it  is  connected  with  a 
hygienic  attitude  of  mind;  and  one  of  the  most  important 
tasks  of  the  health  department  in  the  public  school  system  is 
to  establish  such  an  attitude  through  careful  and  effective 
teaching.  As  an  aid  to  such  teaching,  every  school  should 
be  provided  with  equipment  so  that  lessons  learned  may  be 
put  into  practice. 

Lavatories.  Few  definite  standards  have  as  yet  been 
evolved  concerning  the  number  and  location  of  lavatories. 
Children's  hands  become  dirty  while  on  the  playground, 
while  using  chalk  at  the  blackboard,  handling  books,  writing 
with  ink,  working  in  the  shops  or  gymnasium,  and  the  like. 
They  should  be  encouraged  to  wash  their  hands  whenever 
they  are  dirty,  and  if  they  are  to  eat  lunch  at  school  washing 
the  hands  before  entering  the  lunchroom  should  be  insisted 
upon.  If  such  a  plan  is  to  be  carried  out,  however,  it  becomes 
essential  that  adequate  washing  facilities  be  provided  and 
situated  where  they  may  be  reached  quickly,  so  that  chil- 
dren will  feel  free  to  use  them  and  time  will  not  be  lost  away 
from  the  classroom.  While  most  school  men  are  theoretically 
in  agreement  with  this  principle,  actually  there  are  few 
schools  in  the  United  States  built  and  equipped  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  can  readily  be  put  into  practice. 


96  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

In  many  schools  the  only  washing  facilities  are  in  the 
basement.    Wash-basins  are  certainly  needed  both  for  chil- 
dren coming  from  the  toilet  and  for  those  on  the  playground; 
but  if  the  only  washbowls  are  in  the  basement  children  will 
rarely  use  them  for  removing  the  dirt  of  the  classroom.    In 
some  parts  of  England  and  the  United  States  wash-basins 
with   hot  water  are  placed  in  every  dressing-room.     More 
frequently  in  this  country  they  are  placed  on  each  floor  in 
the  hallway,  or  in  a  small  room  set  aside  for  that  purpose. 
The  second  method  makes  for  simpler  plumbing,  but  prob- 
ably means  that  water  will  be  used  less  freely.     In  a  few 
cases  wash-basins  are  supplied  as  part  of  the  regular  room 
furnishings.  It  is  fairly  common  for  special  washing  arrange- 
ments to  be  provided  for  children  in  the  open-air  classes, 
so  that  they  may  wash  the  hands  before  eating,  but  there 
is  rarely  any  similar  provision  for  normal  children  who 
patronize  the  school   lunch,  even  though  the  practice  of 
eating  with  dirty  hands  is  widespread  and  distinctly  dan- 
gerous. 

Wash-basins  should  always  be  installed  in  rooms  where 
special  cleanliness  is  desired  —  such  as  sewing-rooms,  or 
where  dirty  work  is  being  carried  on,  as,  for  instance,  in 
forge-rooms,  printing-rooms,  gymnasiums,  and  the  like. 
They  should  also  be  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  doctor's 
office,  teacher's  rest-room,  and  kindergarten.  In  England, 
according  to  Burgerstein's  account,  one  wash-basin  is  pro- 
vided for  every  twenty-five  children.  In  the  United  States 
each  basin  is  frequently  expected  to  accommodate  several 
hundred  children.  The  installation  of  a  basin  in  every  dress- 
ing-room, or  a  washroom  with  a  battery  of  basins  on  every 
floor,  would  involve  heavy  expense,  but  the  returns  in  im- 
proved health  and  better  habits  would  speedily  justify  the 
investment. 

Hot  water.  Lavatories  should  be  supplied  with  hot  water 


WATER  SUPPLY  07 

as  well  as  cold.  This  at  once  implies  some  means  of  heating 
water  in  connection  with  the  regular  heating-plant.  Cold 
water  is  better  than  none,  but  it  is  ineffective  in  removing 
dirt,  and  in  winter  children  will  often  refrain  from  washing 
at  all  rather  than  plunge  the  hands  into  very  cold  water. 

Soap.  A  good  quality  of  liquid  or  powdered  soap,  in  con- 
tainers devised  to  prevent  spilling  and  waste,  should  be 
provided  over  every  basin.  Soap  may  be  brought  from  home 
by  individual  children,  but  the  cakes  are  apt  to  get  lost, 
lent  from  one  child  to  another,  fall  on  the  floor,  and  gener- 
ally prove  unsatisfactory.  Care  should  be  taken  in  selecting 
liquid  soap  to  choose  a  brand  which  will  not  irritate  the 
skin. 

Towels.  Individual  towels  may  be  brought  from  home 
by  the  children  or  may  be  supplied  by  the  school.  In  the 
latter  case  they  should  be  thoroughly  washed  and  sterilized 
before  being  given  to  new  children.  Some  schools  supply 
each  child  with  a  fresh  towel  once  a  week,  and  have  strict 
rules  against  exchanging  towTels  between  friends.  Paper 
towels  which  are  used  once  and  then  destroyed  are  rapidly 
coming  into  use.  When  first  introduced  they  were  rather 
expensive,  but  the  price  is  coming  within  the  reach  of  school 
boards;  and  it  is  probable  that  before  long  they  will  have 
largely  supplanted  cotton  or  linen  towels.  Large  bins  should 
be  provided  for  catching  the  discarded  paper  towels,  because, 
since  they  are  rather  bulky,  they  rapidly  litter  the  floor  and 
evoke  bitter  complaints  from  the  janitor. 

Baths  as  punishments.  Bathing  is  such  a  primitive  need 
of  the  body  that  increased  facilities  for  its  performance 
mean  always  increased  health.  It  is  rather  astonishing  that 
such  slow  progress  has  been  made  in  the  United  States 
in  providing  baths  for  school  children.  A  few  cities  sup- 
ply showers  or  pools  in  their  newer  buildings,  but  rarely 
are  there  fixtures  enough  to  provide  frequent  baths  for  all 


98  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

or  even  most  of  the  children  enrolled.  In  many  places  the 
school  bath  is  regarded  as  something  rather  like  a  disciplin- 
ary measure.  The  teacher  inspects  the  children,  and  upon 
detecting  evidences  of  uncleanliness  orders  the  culprit  to 
the  showers;  so  that  the  idea  of  bathing  is  forcibly  linked  in 
the  minds  of  the  pupils  with  the  idea  of  punishment.  Few 
better  methods  could  be  devised  for  making  children  wish  to 
remain  unclean. 

Group  showers.  The  school  showers  should  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  important  and  delightful  of  school  posses- 
sions. The  children  should  be  made  to  feel  that  bathing  is 
a  privilege,  and  that  they  are  more  fortunate  than  the  pupils 
in  less  modern  buildings  who  have  to  do  without.  Bathing- 
rooms  should  be  made  as  attractive  as  possible,  well  ven- 
tilated and  flooded  with  sunlight,  and  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate entire  classes  at  one  time.  The  cheapest  form  of 
sanitary  shower  is  the  German  type,  in  which  fixtures  are 
placed  above  large  pools  of  water  about  a  foot  deep,  which 
are  built  in  the  cement  floor.  Children  are  turned  into  these 
pools  in  groups  of  twenty  or  thirty,  are  supplied  with  cakes 
of  soap,  and  after  they  have  carried  on  a  preliminary  scrub- 
bing with  the  water  already  in  the  pool  the  showers  over- 
head give  them  a  thorough  rinsing.  The  pool  water  is  warm ; 
the  showers  are  warm,  gradually  turning  to  cold.  When 
girls  bathe  in  this  way  their  hair  should  be  protected  by 
rubber  caps,  or  by  towels  worn  turban  fashion. 

Another  form  of  the  group  shower  does  away  with  the 
scrubbing-pools,  and  merely  has  the  children  stand  on  a 
cement  floor,  which  slopes  toward  drains  at  the  center.  If 
the  cement  floor  becomes  slippery  it  is  often  necessary  to 
provide  a  flooring  of  wooden  slats  in  order  to  prevent  falling. 
In  most  cases  the  group  shower  can  be  used  successfully 
with  boys,  but  is  not  advisable  for  girls.  Even  with  the 
younger  girls  parents  are  usually  so  averse  to  the  idea  of 


WATER  SUPPLY  99 

group  bathing  that  school  people  will  find  that  any  such 
suggestion  arouses  strong  opposition.  Showers  for  girls 
should  be  placed  in  booths  or  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
room  by  curtains.  Fixtures  should  be  so  adjusted  that  the 
spray  is  shot  from  the  side,  rather  than  from  above.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  prevent  girls'  hair  from  getting  wet  in  an 
overhead  shower,  and  such  an  arrangement  is  sure  to  be 
unpopular. 

Dressing-rooms.  Where  the  system  of  ventilation  is  such 
that  steam  is  rapidly  carried  away,  dressing-rooms  should  be 
built  close  to  the  showers;  but  where  the  air  is  damp  the 
outdoor  clothing  sometimes  becomes  filled  with  moisture, 
and  serious  colds  may  result.  Where  dressing-rooms  are  at 
a  distance  from  the  showers,  sheets  should  be  provided  for 
girls  to  wrap  about  themselves  while  walking  back  and  forth. 
A  simple  arrangement  of  dressing-booths  and  shower  is 
installed  in  several  of  the  Cleveland  schools,  where  one 
shower  and  four  booths,  each  furnished  with  a  seat,  are 
designed  to  form  a  complete  square. 

Rural  bathing.  Some  form  of  shower  bath  should  be  in- 
stalled in  every  school  and  in  sufficient  numbers  to  provide 
for  every  child  in  the  building  a  bath  every  week.  In  rural 
schools  supplied  with  water  under  pressure  baths  may  read- 
ily be  installed,  and  hot  water  secured  by  a  hot-water  tank 
connected  with  furnace,  stove,  or  separate  heater.  Even 
without  a  pressure  tank  water  may  be  pumped  by  hand  into 
an  overhead  reservoir  with  shower  connection.  One  of  the 
reasons  why  the  country  child  makes  such  a  poor  showing 
in  the  medical  inspection  reports  is,  that  in  many  districts 
country  people  regard  bathing  as  an  unnecessary  luxury 
intended  for  babies,  invalids,  and  summer  visitors.  Many 
respectable  city  dwellers,  who  are  rendered  wretchedly  un- 
comfortable without  the  daily  bath,  spent  their  early  days 
on  farms  where  the  only  reason  for  washing  was  to  remove 


100  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

dirt  from  face,  hands,  and  neck,  —  the  parts  of  the  body  which 
showed,  —  because  with  them  and  their  neighbors  cleanliness 
was  a  matter  of  looks,  and  had  little  to  do  with  good  health. 

In  the  ordinary  farmhouse,  where  water  is  pumped  from 
the  well  and  heated  in  tea-kettle  and  boiler  on  top  of  the 
kitchen  stove,  it  is  a  serious  undertaking  to  provide  baths 
for  a  large  family.  The  city  dweller  himself  would  find  that 
if  the  family  washtubs  had  to  be  carried  into  the  kitchen 
and  filled  and  emptied  by  hand,  even  a  weekly  bath  would 
tend  to  disappear.  There  is  no  need  for  the  farmhouse  to  be 
lacking,  as  it  so  often  is,  in  the  simple  sanitary  equipment 
which  makes  for  cleanly  living,  but  years  of  education  must 
ensue  before  the  farmer  desires  cleanliness  enough  to  work 
for  it,  and  pending  that  time  the  country  school  must  care 
for  the  bathing  needs  of  its  children. 

Tubs  and  pools.  It  is  unwise  to  install  tubs  in  school 
buildings  or  other  places  of  public  resort  because,  to  make 
them  safe,  requires  sterilization  after  each  use;  they  take 
up  too  much  room;  are  expensive  to  purchase;  and  are  less 
refreshing  than  the  shower  bath.  If  soap  is  provided,  dirt 
may  be  removed  under  the  shower  as  easily  as  in  the  tub. 

Many  high  schools  and  a  few  elementary  schools  in  the 
United  Spates  are  equipped  with  swimming-pools.  They 
should  not  be  used  for  purposes  of  cleaning  the  body;  in 
fact,  shower  baths  should  be  supplied  and  their  use  insisted 
upon  before  swimmers  are  allowed  to  enter  the  water.  The 
pool  is  of  value  chiefly  because  it  provides  good  sport,  prac- 
tice in  group  activity,  physical  exercise,  and  opportunity 
to  learn  how  to  swim.  From  the  educational  viewpoint  the 
swimming-pool  is  a  good  investment. 

Construction  of  pools.  The  location  chosen  is  usually  in 
the  basement,  on  the  south  or  east  side  where  good  lighting 
can  be  secured.  The  pool  should  be  about  seventy-five  feet 
long  (so  as  to  provide  for  the  twenty-five-yard  dash)  and 


WATER  S.UPPTA'  101 

twenty  or  twenty-five  feet  wide.  The  depth  varies  for  differ- 
ent uses,  but  should  be  at  least  seven  feet  at  one  end  and 
two  and  one-half  feet  at  the  other.  The  bed  and  retaining 
walls  should  be  of  concrete,  lined  with  asphalt,  and  provided 
with  an  inner  lining  of  cement  or  brick,  with  wall  ties  to 
bind  the  enameled  brick  facing.  This  interior  facing  should 
be  glazed,  without  cracks  or  roughness,  and  set  with  rounded 
corners,  so  that  it  can  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  A  light- 
colored  surface  makes  for  cleanliness,  and  is  the  best  back- 
ground for  the  black  lines  which  should  run  the  length  of 
the  pool,  on  the  bottom,  for  guidance  in  speed  swimming. 
Square  ends  are  necessary  if  swimming  meets  are  to  be  held. 

A  life  rail  should  be  set  level  on  the  top  course  of  brick, 
and  a  scum  trough  placed  below,  just  at  the  water  level. 
The  waves  made  by  the  swimmers  will  then  carry  scum 
formed  into  the  drain  pipe.  In  some  pools  cuspidor  attach- 
ment is  made  with  the  life  rail.  Swimming  often  causes  one 
to  raise  mucus,  and  if  cuspidor  is  not  at  hand  the  swimmer 
will  expectorate  and  so  defile  the  water.  At  each  end  of  the 
pool  steps  should  be  built  into  the  side  wall  to  take  the  place 
of  the  ladder  usually  placed  there.  The  depth  of  the  water 
should  be  clearly  marked  on  the  sides  and  bottom.  A  spring- 
board and  a  diving-stand  are  desirable  additions  to  the  equip- 
ment of  the  pool. 

Keeping  the  water  pure.  Objections  are  frequently  raised 
to  public  swimming-pools  because  of  the  danger  of  infection 
resulting  from  many  persons  bathing  together  in  polluted 
water.  That  the  fear  is  justified  is  shown  by  experiments 
such  as  those  quoted  by  Bunker  and  Whipple.  "  1 1  was  found 
that  washing  a  dirty  male  hospital  patient  yielded  twenty- 
five  thousand  million  bacteria;  that  a  smooth-skinned  'clean ' 
man^gave  three  thousand  million,  as  against  fourteen  thousand 
million  from  a  hairy-skinned  individual.  The  feet  of  a  boy  in 
the  corridor,  about  to  enter  the  pool,  yielded  eighty  million." 


102  HEAITPEUL  SCHOOLS 

When  swimming-pools  were  first  introduced  there  was 
grave  fear  of  transmitting  disease,  and  many  experiments 
were  carried  on  to  find  means  of  overcoming  the  danger. 
As  a  result,  it  has  been  found  that  pools  may  be  made  safe 
by  a  combination  of  refiltration  and  doses  of  hypochlorite 
of  lime.  Arthur  N.  Crane,  in  the  Proceedings  of  tfie  American 
Association  for  Promoting  Hygienic  and  Public  Baths  says, 
in  discussing  refiltration:  "However,  it  is  only  fair  to  point 
out  that  while  many  of  the  reports  from  pools  where  refil- 
tration only  is  employed  indicate  high  bacteriological  effi- 
ciency, this  cannot  reasonably  be  expected  so  confidently 
as  if  the  hypochlorite  of  lime  treatment  also  were  used. 
While  it  is  quite  possible  to  operate  a  mechanical  filter  so 
as  to  deliver  at  the  outlet  of  the  filter  a  water  pure  to  the 
degree  demanded  by  health  authorities  for  drinking-water, 
and  a  pool  could  therefore  be  filled  with  pure  water,  yet  the 
first  individual  entering  it  would  contaminate  it,  and  while 
the  filter  could  always  be  operated  so  that  the  water  would 
always  be  pure,  the  full  effect  of  this  would  be  lost  so  soon 
as  the  water  mixed  with  other  water  in  the  pool  which  had 
already  been  contaminated."  He  goes  on  to  explain  the 
desirability  of  the  hypochlorite  of  lime  treatment.  Ordinary 
commercial  hypochlorite  of  lime  contains  about  thirty  per 
cent  of  available  chlorine.  It  is  this  nascent  chlorine  which 
acts  to  kill  the  bacteria.  One  pound  of  the  hypochlorite  will 
treat  satisfactorily  a  one  hundred  thousand  gallon  pool,  and 
since  the  lime  only  costs  two  cents  per  pound  the  annual 
bill  for  this  preventive  will  be  only  about  $7.30. 

Refiltration  is  even  less  expensive.  Reports  show  that  it 
takes  on  an  average  two  tons  of  coal  to  heat  a  one  hundred 
thousand  gallon  pool  to  a  temperature  of  between  70°  and 
75°  F.  In  addition,  water  itself  in  most  communities  is 
rather  expensive.  If  this  water  is  used  over  and  over  again, 
freshly  filtered  each  time,  —  and  never  allowed  to  lose  much 


WATER  SUPPLY  103 

of  its  heat,  the  result  is  a  decided  money-saving.  Refiltra- 
tion,  combined  with  dosing  of  hypochlorite  of  lime,  procures 
a  constant  supply  of  fresh  water  emptying  into  the  pool, 
and  a  continuous  purification  of  the  water  already  contained 
there,  so  that  dangers  of  infection  are  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
Rules  and  regulations  for  pools.  In  boys'  and  men's  pools 
no  clothing,  or  at  most  nothing  more  than  a  pair  of  bathing- 
trunks,  should  be  worn.  A  cleansing  shower  of  hot  water 
and  soap  should  always  precede  the  plunge.  In  girls'  and 
women's  pools  the  clothing  should  be  a  single-piece  swim- 
ming-suit, similar  to  men's  trunks  and  jerseys;  it  should 
be  sterilized  after  each  using  and  kept  in  the  building  by 
attendants.  Girls  and  women  should  be  obliged  to  remove 
suits  and  hang  them  over  the  door  before  taking  the  cleans- 
ing shower.  The  following  rules  and  regulations  will  be 
found  needful  in  the  administration  of  swimming-pools :  — 

1.  Maintain  the  water  in  the  pool  pure  and  clear  by  employing 
refiltration  and  hypochlorite  of  lime. 

2.  Have  the  pool  well  lighted  by  sunlight  during  the  day,  and 
by  artificial  lights  at  night. 

3.  Have  an  attendant  always  on  duty  when  the  pool  is  in  use; 
grant  no  admission  at  other  times. 

4.  Prevent  persons  with  any  communicable  disease  fiom  using 
the  pool.   Examine  the  heart  of  every  person  admitted. 

5.  Enforce  the  cleansing  of  each  bather  before  entering  pool. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by :  — 

a.  Admittance  to  pool  only  through  showers. 

b.  Insistence  that  suits  be  taken  off  and  thrown  over  door 
while  women  bathe. 

6.  Allow  no  unsterilized  clothing  to  be  worn  in  the  pool.  Guard 
against  stockings  and  undergarments  worn  under  bathing- 
suits.  Insist  that  all  women  bathers  shall  wear  rubber  caps. 

7.  Provide  a  scum  gutter  around  the  pool;  prohibit  expectoration 
in  the  pool. 

8.  Prevent  visitors  from  walking  around  the  pools,  and  thus 
tracking  in  dirt.    Visitors  must  stay  in  the  gallery. 

9.  Prohibit  handkerchiefs  in  the  water;  allow  no  cold  cream  or 


104  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

powder  to  be  put  on  the  face  before  entering:  prevent  bathers 
with  cuts,  vaccinations,  corn  plasters,  or  bandages  from  using 
the  pool. 

10.  Have  a  long  pole  on  either  side  of  the  pool  with  which  to  help 
persons  unable  to  swim  who  go  beyond  their  depth. 

11.  Do  not  have  any  obstruction  in  the  pool  or  along  the  edge. 
Do  not  allow  running  on  the  tile  approach  to  the  life  rail. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AM)  DISCUSSION 

1.  How  should  rural-school  authorities  determine  the  geological  forma- 
tion of  ground  around  the  school  building?  Are  any  government 
sources  of  information  availal 

2.  When  is  water  considered  "pure"  for  drinking  purposes?  How  may 
it  be  tested?   Are  any  of  these  tests  practicable  for  use  by  teachers? 

3.  What  is  a  driven  well?  A  dug  well?  What  are  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  each? 

4.  Make  a  comparative  study  of  drinking  fountains  now  on  the  market; 
noting  such  points  as  durability,  simplicity,  safety,  economy  of  water, 
cost,  and  the  like. 

5.  Secure  a  table  showing  height  of  school  children  at  different  ages,  and 
from  this  determine  how  high  drinking-fountains  should  be  made  for 
various  types  of  schools.  Should  all  the  fountains  in  one  buildmg  be 
of  the  same  height? 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

American  Association  for  Promoting  Hjgiene  and  Public  Baths.    Annual 

Report.    (1913.) 
Brewer,  I.  W.    Rural  Hygiene.    (Philadelphia,  1909.) 
Particularly  helpful  on  question  of  water  supply. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.  School  Hygiene.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New 
York.    (1913.) 

Gives  rather  full  and  interesting  treatment  of  subjects  here  discussed. 

Mason,  W7illiam  P.  Water  Supply.  Fourth  edition.  Wiley  &  Sons,  New 
York.    (1916.) 

Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health.  "Sanitary  Control  of  Swimming- 
Pools";  in  Annual  Report.    (1912.) 

Ra venal,  "Hygiene  of  Swimming-Pools";  in  Journal  of  American  Medical 
Association,  October  19,  1912. 

United  States  Public  Health  Service,  Bulletin  no.  57.  Common  Drinking 
Cups  and  Roller  Toicels. 

Whipple  George  C.  Value  of  Pure  Water.  WTiley  &  Sons,  New  York.   (1907). 


CHAPTER  VII 

TOILETS 

Typical  toilet-rooms.  The  following  paragraphs,  taken 
from  the  volume  on  ScJiooi  Buildings  and  Equipment  of  the 
Cleveland  Education  Survey,  is  a  fairly  accurate  description 
of  the  toilet-rooms  in  most  city  school  buildings :  — 

The  typical  toilet-room  in  the  elementary  school  is  located  in 
the  basement.  Walls  are  whitewashed  and  the  floor  is  of  cement. 
The  room  is  lighted  from  one  or  two  sides  by  several  small  windows 
near  the  ceiling.  Down  the  center  of  the  room  runs  a  double  row 
of  toilets,  placed  back  to  back,  and  separated  from  cadi  other  l>y 
wooden  partitions.  Except  in  the  newest  schools  there  arc  no  doors 
or  screens  to  shield  the  occupants,  either  boys  or  girls.  Toilets 
are  of  the  latrine  type  —  that  is,  they  all  empty  into  one  large 
trough  running  underneath,  and  are  flushed  at  regular  intervals  by 
a  central  flushing  system.  The  body  of  the  toilet  is  usually  of  iron, 
and  the  seat  of  wood  with  a  wooden  cover.  All  seats  aie  the  same 
height  from  the  floor,  without  regard  to  the  size  of  the  children 
for  whom  they  are  intended. 

In  the  boys'  room  urinals  of  metal  covered  with  white  enamel 
paint  and  supplied  with  iron  bases  are  placed  around  the  sides  of 
the  room.  They  are  continually  flushed  by  overflow  or  pierced 
pipes  at  the  top,  and  are  open  to  the  room  without  dividing  par- 
titions or  screens.  In  over  half  the  schools  metal  urinals  have 
been  replaced  by  porcelain,  with  glass  bases  of  the  same  shape 
and  flushed  in  the  same  way.  Where  metal  urinals  are  used  there 
is  sometimes  an  unpleasant  odor.  Cement  floors  around  latrines 
and  urinals  are  usually  discolored. 

Toilet-rooms  receive  little  light  from  outside  windows.  Where 
latrines  are  ranged  down  the  center  of  the  room  they  cut  off  all 
sunlight  and  render  the  rooms  so  dark  that  artificial  Lighting  is 
constantly  necessary.  In  old  buildings  there  are  very  few  toilet- 
rooms  in  which  the  sunlight  ever  reaches  the  fart  hot  corner. 

At  one  side  of  the  room,  against  the  wall,  or  else  just  outside  the 
door,  aie  placed  at  least  one,  and  often  four,  sanitary  drinking- 


106  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

fountains,  and  beside  them  four  wash-basins  with  hot  and  cold 
water.  In  a  few  cases  shower  baths  are  also  located  in  the  toilet- 
room. 

Doors  are  of  wood  and  frosted  glass.  They  are  in  two  parts,  with 
a  post  between.  One  side  swings  out,  and  the  other  in.  All  rooms 
are  labeled.  The  boys'  room  is  usually  at  the  opposite  end  of  the 
building  from  that  of  the  girls.  Throughout  the  schools  these  rooms 
are  exceptionally  free  from  obscene  writing. 

The  Board  of  Education  is  speedily  replacing  metal  urinals  with 
porcelain  in  old  buildings.  In  a  few  of  the  newest  buildings,  the 
old-style  wooden  seats  are  being  replaced  by  wood  or  porcelain 
seats  with  open  fronts,  and  occasionally  the  metal  body  is  replaced 
by  porcelain.  In  some  buildings  the  stalls  in  the  girls'  toilet  are 
provided  with  doors. 

This  description  held  true  for  most  of  Cleveland's  school 
buildings,  but  it  should  be  noted  that  while  the  toilet-rooms 
in  the  newest  schools  wrere  distinctly  better,  there  were  no 
schools  in  the  system  where  conditions  were  shockingly  bad. 
There  are  very  few  cities  in  the  country  of  which  the  same 
thing  could  be  said.  The  toilet-rooms  in  Cleveland  needed 
improvements,  but  the  school  board  was  aware  of  the  fact 
and  conditions  were  rapidly  changing.  It  is  unfortunately 
true  that  in  most  schools,  even  in  our  largest  cities,  toilet- 
rooms  are  poorly  planned,  insanitary,  dark,  and  badly 
cared-for;  and  very  little  attempt  is  being  made  to  remedy 
the  situation. 

Location  and  lighting.  In  most  schools  it  is  probably  best 
to  place  large  toilet-rooms  in  the  basement,  with  smaller 
rooms  on  each  floor  above,  or  between  floors  on  stair  land- 
ings. Basement  rooms  should  be  so  situated  that  the  sec- 
tions for  boys  and  girls  are  entirely  separated  from  each 
other.  Where  possible  the  rooms  should  have  a  southern 
outlook,  so  that  they  will  be  bathed  in  sunlight  during  much 
of  the  day.  Where  the  southern  side  is  not  available,  an 
eastern  frontage  should  be  chosen.  As  was  stated  earlier, 
it  is  exceedingly  desirable  that  basements  should  not  be 


TOILETS  107 

sunk  more  than  three  feet  below  the  grade  level.  One  advan- 
tage gained  by  the  shallow  excavation  is  that  plenty  of  sun- 
light is  thereby  made  possible. 

At  least  one  layer  of  window  glass  should  be  made  so  that 
it  will  admit  light  and  sunshine,  but  will  not  allow  objects 
to  be  seen  through  it.  Certain  types  of  wire  glass  are  excel- 
lent for  this  purpose,  since  they  admit  light,  are  not  trans- 
parent, and  are  so  constructed  as  to  stand  very  rough  treat- 
ment. Where  wire  glass  is  not  used  it  is  usually  desirable 
to  place  an  iron  grating  or  screen  outside  the  window.  It 
should  be  remembered,  too,  that  schools  are  in  session  only 
a  small  portion  of  each  day.  Before  nine  in  the  morning 
and  after  four  in  the  afternoon  there  is  no  reason  why  toilet- 
rooms  should  not  be  exposed  to  direct  sunlight  by  sliding 
back  the  translucent  glass  windows  usually  used,  and  leaving 
the  windows  either  entirely  open  or  screened  with  a  single 
thickness  of  clear  glass  panels.  A  little  thought  will  suffice 
to  plan  toilet-rooms  so  that  they  can  actually  be  flooded 
with  sunlight  for  several  hours  each  day. 

Walls,  ceilings,  and  floors.  The  walls  of  the  toilet-room 
should  be  white  or  very  light-colored,  so  that  they  will 
reflect  light  and  reveal  dirt;  and  they  should  be  made  of 
some  material  which  can  be  washed  frequently,  and  which 
presents  a  surface  which  cannot  easily  be  disfigured  with 
knife-cuttings  or  pencil  marks.  White  glazed  brick  or  tile 
set  in  cement  makes  an  excellent  basement  wall,  and  is 
not  excessively  expensive.  The  ceiling  should  be  white,  in 
a  hard,  smooth  finish,  so  that  it  can  be  washed  occasionally 
without  harm.  Toilet-room  floors  should  not  be  made  of 
uncoated  cement,  because  uric  acid  sets  up  a  chemical 
action  which  causes  discoloration,  and  frequently  gives 
the  characteristic  toilet-room  odor.  Very  little  can  be 
done  to  remedy  it.  Good  floors  may  be  made  with  a  ce- 
ment foundation  over  which  is  laid  a  layer  of  asphaltum. 


108  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Asphaltum  is  impervious  to  water  and  uric  acid,  and  makes 
an  excellent  surface  for  toilet-rooms. 

Floors  should  be  provided  with  drains,  so  that  they  may- 
be washed  down  with  the  hose;  and  should  be  slanting,  so 
that  the  water  will  run  off  readily.    It  is  not  unusual  to  find 
new  buildings  thoroughly  equipped  with  hose,  glazed  walls, 
etc.,  yet   built  without  drains,  so  that  whatever  water  is 
used  for  cleaning  must  either  be  wiped  up  by  hand  or  allowed 
to  evaporate.    Toilet-rooms  should  be  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  building  by  swinging  doors,  and  each  should  be  plainly 
labeled  "Boys'  toilet,"  or  "Girls'  toilet,"  as  the  case  may  be. 
Equipment  per  number  of  pupils.   The  Ohio  State  Build- 
ing Code,  the  rules  of  the  Indiana  State  Board  of  Health, 
and  the  rules  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  of  New  York 
State  require,  as  a  minimum  of  accommodations  for  indoor 
toilets,  one  toilet  seat  for  every  fifteen  girls,  one  urinal  for 
every  fifteen  boys,  and  one  seat  for  every  twenty-five  boys. 
Other  authorities  suggest  one  urinal  for  every  twenty-five 
boys.    In  planning  new  buildings  care  should  be  taken  to 
provide  equipment  or  connections  so  that  new  equipment 
may  be  added  for  pupils  in  excess  of  the  number  expected 
during  the  first  year.    When  portables  or  additions  to  the 
main  building  are  erected,  extra  toilet  provision  should  at 
once  be  made. 

Location  of  equipment.  Care  should  be  taken  in  installing 
toilet  equipment  not  to  cut  off  light  from  the  windows. 
It  is  a  common  thing  to  find  a  long  double  row  of  stalls  down 
the  center,  standing  so  high  that  all  the  farther  side  of  the 
room  is  plunged  in  gloom.  Closets  should  be  placed  around 
the  sides,  with  the  openings  facing  toward  the  sunlight. 
Urinals  may  be  placed  in  the  center  if  they  are  low  enough 
so  as  not  to  cut  off  light,  but  unless  quarters  are  crowded 
the  plan  of  placing  urinals  against  the  wall  is  apt  to  be  more 
satisfactory. 


z 
o 


s 


r. 

_: 


T. 


— 


Fig.  17.  Toilets 

Not  the  right  sort  of  toilets  for  a  healthful  school 


TOILETS  loo 

Urinals.  Metal  urinals  covered  with  two  or  three  layers 
of  glazed  paint  are  unsatisfactory,  because  after  a  compara- 
tively short  time  the  paint  wears  off  and  the  metal  becomes 
corroded.  Schools  already  equipped  with  metal  urinals 
should  have  them  removed  as  speedily  as  possible,  and 
better  types  installed;  otherwise  the  toilet-rooms  will  con- 
tinue to  give  out  an  unpleasant  odor.  Disinfectants  in  the 
toilet-room  are  a  sure  sign  of  defective  installation  or  equip- 
ment, and  should  not  be  used. 

Urinals  should  be  made  of  porcelain,  marble,  or  glass. 
Slate  is  often  recommended,  but  is  inferior  to  the  materials 
above  listed  because  it  is  not  entirely  impervious  to  mois- 
ture, and  because  it  catches  and  holds  dirt  which  cannot 
be  readily  detected.  The  individual  tip-bowl  type  of 
urinal  is  probably  not  desirable  for  elementary  schools, 
because  it  gets  out  of  order  and  is  apt  to  be  misused  by  the 
boys.  Common  troughs  are  especially  objectionable,  and 
should  never  be  used.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  tyj 
is  that  made  by  stalls  with  division  walls  deep  enough  to 
screen  the  occupants.  The  stalls  incline  forward  toward 
the  bottom,  and  are  continually  flushed  by  overflow  pi] 
at  the  top  which  send  a  layer  of  water  over  the  entire  sur- 
face. Water  and  urine  are  carried  off  by  a  narrow  gutter  at 
the  base  of  the  stalls.  The  air  of  the  toilet-room  is  drawn 
down  over  this  gutter  and  out  to  the  ventilating  stack. 
There  are  now  on  the  market  urinals  on  a  circular  base  with 
radiating  stalls  which  insure  greater  privacy,  take  up  less 
space,  and  are  simpler  in  drainage  and  ventilation  than  the 
wall  urinal. 

Latrines.  The  latrine  is  probably  the  simplest,  cheapest, 
and  most  commonly  installed  type  of  water-closet.  Accord- 
ing to  this  plan  each  row  of  closets  is  flushed  at  the  same  time 
by  a  tank  at  the  end  of  the  row.  This  makes  possible  a  type 
of  plumbing  so  simple  that  it  rarely  gets  out  of  order,  and  is 


110  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

therefore  greatly  favored  by  school-builders.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  latrine  closet  makes  it  impossible  to  flush  one  of 
the  closets  without  flushing  the  rest,  and  as  the  intervals 
of  flushing  are  automatically  controlled,  ten  or  fifteen  min- 
utes must  sometimes  elapse  before  the  closet  is  swept  with 
water.  It  is  usually  possible  and  always  desirable  to  regulate 
the  mechanism  in  such  a  way  that  during  recess  periods 
flushing  will  occur  at  very  frequent  intervals.  Latrines  are 
frequently  hard  to  ventilate,  because  of  the  long  periods 
between  flushing,  and,  if  unpleasant  odors  are  to  be  avoided, 
it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  very  strong  down  draught  for 
each  closet. 

It  is  also  true  that  where  latrine  closets  are  used  it  is 
difficult  to  regulate  the  height  of  the  seat,  and  primary  chil- 
dren frequently  experience  difficulty  in  using  toilets  which 
are  of  convenient  height  for  eighth-grade  pupils.  Where 
seats  cannot  be  lowered  in  old  buildings,  low  benches  or 
steps  should  be  provided  in  several  of  the  stalls,  for  the 
use  of  smaller  children. 

Individual  flush.  Individual  flush  toilets  are  more  com- 
plicated in  mechanism  than  the  latrine,  but  when  good 
types  are  secured  they  are  considerably  more  satisfactory. 
Such  closets  permit  different  sizes  for  primary  and  upper- 
grade  children,  immediate  flushing  whenever  needed,  and 
a  considerable  saving  in  water.  Certain  toilets  are  arranged 
with  automatic  flush  operated  by  placing  weight  upon,  or 
removing  weight  from,  the  seat.  Others  are  dependent 
upon  hand  flushing  by  handle,  knob,  or  chain. 

The  automatic  flush  is  desirable  where  absolute  cleanli- 
ness is  the  main  consideration.  Voluntary  flushing  requires 
that  the  toilet-rooms  be  under  constant  and  close  super- 
vision, for  many  children  are  ignorant  concerning  the  proper 
use  of  the  toilet,  and  many  others  are  careless.  Because  of 
this  fact,  and  since  one  of  the  important  duties  of  the  school 


TOILETS  111 

is  to  train  children  in  sanitary  habits,  it  is  claimed  that  the 
voluntary  flushing  system  is  necessary.    Where  toilets  are 
automatically  cleansed  the  child  feels  no  responsibility  and 
secures  no  training.    The  argument  is  probably  valid,  and 
the  individual  voluntary  flush  system  is  probably  the  best, 
provided  —  and  this  point  should    be  emphasized  —  that 
school  authorities  assume  full  responsibility  for  seeing  to  it 
that  the  children  are  actually  taught  how  to  use  it.  If  toilet- 
rooms  are  to  remain  under  spasmodic  or  superficial  supervi- 
sion, some  form  of  simple  automatic  flush  should  be  installed. 
Automatic  flush  and  nerve  strain.    Another  point  con- 
cerning the  flushing   system  is  rarely  mentioned  in  such 
discussions,  but  has  a  very  real  importance.    All  those  who 
have  had  intimate  acquaintance  with  small  children  know 
that  the  automatic  flush  is  frequently  a  source  of  terror. 
The  toilet  used  in  the  ordinary  city  home  is  flushed  by 
hand,  and  country  children  are  often  unacquainted  with  the 
flush  toilet  in  any  form.    In  school,  clogging  of  pipes  with 
consequent  overflowing  occurs  frequently  enough  so  that 
many  wild  stories  are  circulated,  and  the  child  feels  afraid 
even  to  enter  the  toilet-rooms  except  at  recess  periods  when 
other  children  are  near.     Consequently,  when    automatic 
flushing  occurs  with  its  roaring  sound  and  the  rush  of  wa- 
ter and  spray,  nervous  children  become  convinced  that  the 
toilet  is  about  to  overflow,  and  the  idea  may  become  so  vivid 
that  children  will  suffer  for  several  hours  rather  than  go  alone 
to  the  toilet-room.   Children  rarely  confide  such  imaginings 
to  older  people,  for  fear  of  being  laughed  at;  but  there  seems 
to  be  no  question  that  much  unhappiness  is  daily  caused 
in  this  way.    The  noisy,  unheralded  automatic  flush  is  one 
of  the  chief  defects  in  the  latrine  system.    If  an  automatic 
flush  is  necessary  it  should  be  arranged  to  operate  on  remov- 
ing the  weight  from  the  seat,  so  that  the  child  feels  free  to 
leave  the  stall  as  soon  as  the  flow  of  water  begins. 


112  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Partitions.  Closets  should  be  separated  by  partitions 
which  are  impervious  to  moisture,  light-colored,  and  diffi- 
cult to  deface  with  pencil  or  knife  markings.  Porcelain, 
marble,  or  glass  are  the  best  materials  for  such  partitions. 
Slate  is  fairly  good,  although  usually  too  dark  in  color. 
Wood  should  never  be  used.  Each  partition  should  extend 
to  within  six  inches  of  the  floor,  three  inches  of  the  back,  and 
should  be  about  six  feet  high.  This  does  away  with  corners, 
and  makes  it  possible  to  clean  floors,  walls,  and  partitions 
easily,  and  yet  effectually  to  screen  the  occupants. 

Doors.  Each  closet  should  be  equipped  with  a  door, 
arranged  to  swing  inward  when  not  in  use  and  thus  expose 
the  entire  closet  to  the  germicidal  action  of  the  sun's  rays. 
Such  an  arrangement  also  makes  the  task  of  inspecting  the 
toilet-rooms  easier.  The  common  scheme  of  erecting  a 
screen  in  front  of  the  row  of  seats  is  unwise  because  it  fails 
to  afford  the  proper  privacy,  since,  in  order  to  reach  the 
end  of  the  row,  it  is  necessary  to  pass  in  front  of  all  the  other 
stalls.  It  is  not  uncommonly  suggested  that  in  matters  of 
toilet  arrangements,  bathing,  and  the  like,  modesty  has 
become  confused  with  prudery,  and  it  is  urged  that  the 
wisest  educational  plan  would  be  to  do  away  with  all  doors, 
screens,  and  partitions  between  individual  toilet-stalls,  and 
to  teach  children  to  think  of  such  matters  in  a  perfectly 
matter-of-fact  way. 

In  such  arguments  clear  distinction  should  be  made  be- 
tween training  people  to  be  prudish  and  training  them  to 
be  considerate  of  the  feelings  of  others.  There  is  probably 
no  good  reason  why  people  should  not  undress  and  bathe 
in  front  of  others  of  the  same  sex.  There  is  nothing  about 
the  naked  body  which  is  repellent  or  distasteful.  The  school, 
therefore,  may  render  a  real  service  if  it  teaches  children  to 
regard  the  matter  of  bathing  and  dressing  as  a  natural 
process  which  may  properly  be  carried  on  as  a  group  activ- 


TOILETS  U3 

ity.  The  question  of  toilet  regulations  brings  very  different 
factors  into  consideration.  The  physical  processes  of  evacu- 
ating bladder  and  bowels  involve  many  unpleasant  featun 
Children  should  be  taught  to  seek  privacy  for  the  perform- 
ance of  these  acts,  not  through  a  sense  of  shame,  but  through 
a  fastidious  consideration  of  the  feelings  of  others.  At 
present  in  our  best  school  systems  the  trend  seems  to  be  in 
the  direction  of  affording  to  every  child  the  same  degree  of 
privacy  which  the  adult  requires  in  his  own  home. 

Seats.  The  body  of  the  toilet  should  be  of  vitreous  ware, 
which  is  exceedingly  hard,  and  cannot  easily  be  scratched 
or  stained  or  broken.  Iron  bodies  covered  with  white  enam<  1 
should  not  be  used,  because  the  enamel  shortly  wears  off 
and  the  iron  becomes  corroded  and  ill-smelling.  Toilet- 
seats  should  be  of  glass,  porcelain,  or  other  impervious  ma- 
terial, with  open  front.  Wooden  seats  are  less  likely  to  chill 
the  body,  but  are  harder  to  keep  clean,  and  are  therefore 
inferior  to  porcelain  for  public  places.  The  floors  directly 
underneath  closets  should  be  of  asphaltum,  marble,  or  glass, 
never  of  wood  or  cement.  All  plumbing  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  be  readily  accessible. 

Lavatories  near  toilets.  Near  the  door  of  the  toilet-room 
or  directly  outside  should  be  sinks,  hot  and  cold  water, 
liquid  or  powdered  soap,  and  paper  towels.  Within  the 
near  future  the  toilet-room  for  public  buildings  will  undoubt- 
edly be  greatly  improved;  but  at  the  present  time  doors, 
latches,  paper-holders,  and  chains  must  all  be  touched  by 
the  hands  of  different  occupants;  and,  where  persons  are 
careless  and  hands  become  soiled,  the  opportunities  for 
transmitting  disease  are  very  large.  Typhoid,  dysentery 
and  other  intestinal  disorders,  hookworm,  and  cholera  may 
all  be  carried  in  this  way.  It  is  difficult  for  us  to  arrange 
toilets  so  that  they  will  not  become  contaminated;  but  we 
can  and  should  take  pains  to  give  every  child  definite  knowl- 


114  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

edge  of  the  danger  of  acquiring  or  transmitting  disease  by 
such  means;  and  should  insist  on  each  child  thoroughly 
cleansing  his  hands  with  hot  water  and  soap  after  every  visit 
to  the  toilet.  This  can  be  accomplished  only  by  careful 
teaching  and  supervision,  but  it  is  a  matter  of  too  great 
importance  to  neglect. 

Ventilation.  Ventilation  of  toilet-rooms  should  be  carried 
on  separately  from  the  main  ventilating  system.  One  of  the 
easiest  and  most  effective  methods  is  to  draw  the  air  of  the 
toilet-room  down  over  the  drains  in  urinals  and  closets,  and 
out  through  a  ventilating  stack  in  which  a  draught  is  kept 
up  by  means  of  a  heater  placed  in  the  stack.  This  heater 
may  be  composed  of  steam  coils  from  the  main  heating 
plant,  but  probably  a  more  satisfactory  and  inexpensive 
method  is  to  have  a  small  separate  fire,  of  the  kind  which 
burns  slowly  and  steadily  and  does  not  need  frequent  re- 
plenishing. This  fire  should  never  be  allowed  to  go  out,  even 
on  Sundays  and  holidays,  during  the  months  in  which 
schools  are  in  session.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the 
ventilating  system  of  the  toilet-room  be  part  of  the  central 
system,  because  where  this  is  the  case  back  draughts  are  apt 
to  occur  and  serious  trouble  result. 

Extra  toilet-rooms.  At  least  one  toilet  for  boys  and  one 
for  girls  should  be  placed  on  each  floor  above  the  basement, 
or  on  landings  between  floors,  to  be  used  for  emergency  pur- 
poses. There  should  also  be  located,  at  convenient  intervals 
throughout  the  building,  toilet-rooms  and  wash-rooms  for 
teachers.  A  toilet-room  should  be  annexed  to  the  office  of 
the  nurse  or  medical  inspector,  and  special  toilets  should  be 
provided  near  rooms  designed  for  feeble-minded  children. 
Special  equipment  has  been  designed  for  the  kindergarten. 
In  some  cities  it  is  the  practice  to  build  a  large  cupboard 
directly  off  the  kindergarten  room  to  be  used  for  toilet  pur- 
poses. The  toilet  stands  about  ten  inches  high,  and  is  made 


TOILETS  11  o 

of  white  porcelain  with  a  small  seat  and  controlled  flush. 
In  some  cases  the  lower  part  of  the  door  is  cut  away,  so  that 
little  children  may  go  in  and  out  without  having  to  turn 
the  handle  or  swing  the  heavy  door. 

Toilet-rooms  in  high  schools.  In  elementary  schools, 
where  all  children  are  dismissed  for  recess  or  at  the  end  of 
the  session  at  the  same  time,  it  seems  best  to  place  toilets 
in  large  rooms  in  the  basement,  where  they  can  be  carefully 
supervised.  In  most  high  schools,  however,  students  have 
ready  access  to  toilet-rooms  at  the  end  of  every  recitation 
period,  or  even  oftener,  and  the  problem  of  supervision 
becomes  serious.  It  seems  to  be  more  effective,  therefore,  in 
high  schools  to  place  separate  toilet-rooms  for  boys  and  girls 
on  every  floor,  each  one  designed  to  accommodate  only  as 
many  persons  as  are  likely  to  be  at  work  on  that  floor  at 
any  one  time.  It  is  essential  in  planning  high-school  toilet- 
rooms  to  observe  the  suggestions  concerning  glazed  surface-, 
up-to-date  equipment,  and  abundant  lighting,  because  dark 
and  insanitary  rooms  are  almost  sure  to  result  in  serious 
disciplinary  problems. 

The  rural-school  problem.  During  the  past  decade  in- 
creasing emphasis  has  been  placed  upon  the  necessity  for 
providing  adequate  toilet  facilities  in  rural  schools.  Super- 
intendents, principals,  and  teachers  whose  sole  experience 
has  been  gained  in  city  schools  can  hardly  realize  how  seri- 
ous is  the  question  of  rural  sanitation,  nor  how  far  behind 
modern  times  rural  communities  are  in  their  knowledge  of 
elementary  hygiene.  It  is  with  something  of  a  shock  that 
many  people  view  the  figures  gathered  by  urban  and  rural 
medical  inspectors  which  testify  so  convincingly  to  the  un- 
orthodox fact  that  country  children  are  apt  to  be  hollow 
chestecl,  anaemic,  short-sighted,  and  slightly  deaf,  with  in- 
ferior eyesight,  crooked  backs,  decayed  teeth,  and  many 
forms  of  digestive  disturbances.    The  city  child  has  a  better 


116  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

chance  to  reach  adult  life  than  his  country  cousin;  and  the 
Rockefeller  Commission  tells  us  that  in  many  of  the  South- 
ern States  the  barefoot  boy  is  in  grave  danger  of  exchanging 
his  coating  of  healthy  tan  for  the  pallid,  fish-like  stare  of  the 
hookworm  patient.  Any  movement  which  seeks  to  keep 
country  children  on  the  farm  must  also  see  that  they  are 
taught  how  to  live  healthy,  hygienic  lives;  otherwise  it  will 
do  much  to  perpetuate  disease. 

Hookworm  disease.  Many  of  the  diseases  from  which 
country  people  suffer  are  directly  traceable  to  contaminated 
water  and  insanitary  toilet  conditions.  There  are  communi- 
ties in  the  United  States,  many  of  them  in  regions  which 
are  proud  of  their  cultured  history,  where  farmers  fail  to 
provide  even  the  crudest  kind  of  outhouse  for  sanitary  pur- 
poses, and  members  of  the  family  are  compelled  to  resort 
to  cornfields,  meadows,  forest,  and  secluded  corners  behind 
various  farm  buildings.  This  filthy  practice  on  the  part  of 
the  poorer  type  of  American  farmer  is  largely  responsible 
for  the  alarming  spread  of  hookworm  disease;  for  hookworm 
disease  is  caused  by  minute  worms  which  live  in  the  intes- 
tines and  hold  themselves  in  place  by  means  of  hooks  caught 
in  the  intestine  wall.  They  are  carried  outside  the  body  by 
human  excrement,  and  if  care  is  taken  in  its  disposal  they 
may  be  killed  and  prevented  from  doing  further  harm. 

Where  through  carelessness  or  ignorance  body  waste  is 
allowed  to  fall  on  the  ground  where  people  are  working,  the 
larva?  which  speedily  develop  are  apt  sooner  or  later  to  come 
into  contact  with  human  hands  or  feet.  They  bore  their 
way  through  the  skin  and  find  lodging  in  the  body  until 
they  develop  into  full-grown  parasites  and  are  again  cast 
out.  Hookworm  disease  spreads  rapidly  through  whole  com- 
munities. Barefoot  children  are  especially  prone  to  contract 
it.  It  produces  anaemia,  —  ghastly  white  faces  and  staring 
eyes,  —  it  saps  energy,  and  renders  people  stupid  and  slow, 


TOILETS  117 

so  that  they  appear  almost  feeble-minded.  It  has  cost  the 
United  States  many  thousands  of  dollars,  but  if  proper 
toilets  were  built  and  their  use  enforced  it  could  be  practi- 
cally stamped  out  in  a  single  generation. 

Rural  sanitary  surveys.  During  the  spring  of  1913  a 
study  of  rural-school  conditions  was  carried  on  by  the 
Joint  Committee  of  the  National  Council  of  Education  and 
the  American  Medical  Association.  The  following  quotation 
from  their  report  is  taken  from  Dr.  Dresslar's  book  on 
Rural  Schoolhouses  and  Grounds,  published  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education,  in  191  i.  The  returns  were 
based  on  studies  of  two  counties  each  in 

Alabama  Missouri  Pennsylvania 

Arkansas  Montana  South  Dakota 

Colorado  Nebraska  Tennessee 

Indiana  North  Carolina  Texas 

Maryland  North  Dakota  West  Virginia 

Minnesota  Oklahoma  Wisconsin 

The  toilet  facilities  of  the  rural  schools  are,  generally  speaking, 
not  only  a  disgrace,  but  a  menace  to  public  health  and  decent 
morals.  Not  over  one  per  cent  of  rural  schools  arc  furnished  with 
completely  sanitary  toilets.  This  is  a  liberal  estimate.  From  the 
descriptions  given  in  the  returns  it  has  been  comparatively  easy  to 
decide  between  those  which  are  passably  sanitary  and  those  in- 
sanitary. The  figures  are  these:  Out  of  1276  replies  examined,  50 
schools  have  no  toilets  at  all;  52  have  only  one;  174  have  two. 
Nearly  half  (601)  have  no  pit  at  all  for  the  refuse,  and  631  have 
an  open  pit.  Not  20  in  the  whole  number  are  protected  against 
flies  or  can  be  cleaned  with  any  sort  of  success. 

The  sanitary  survey  of  3572  fourth-class  district  schools, 
made  in  1911  and  1912  by  the  Pennsylvania  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  shows  that  nearly  1200  were  not  clean, 
and  over  1300  had  an  objectionable  odor.  At  least  839 
had  no  vault  to  catch  the  waste;  785  were  not  water- 
tight, so  that  at  times  the  contents  worked  through  to  the 
outer  air.    Over  a  thousand  used  no  lime  or  ashes.    In  500 


118  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

schools  the  vault  was  already  full,  and  in  208  more  it  was 
overflowing. 

In  another  survey,  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  the 
Joint  Committee  noted  above,  of  the  privies  of  109  schools 
in  the  States  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Connecticut,  Ver- 
mont, and  Maryland,  50  were  used  by  both  boys  and  girls, 
50  were  marked  with  obscene  drawings,  92  were  neither  pro- 
vided with  excavation  nor  removable  receptacle,  and  of  the 
109  only  eight  were  cleaned  of  their  contents  more  than  once 
a  year. 

These  and  similar  studies  are  sufficient  to  show  that  in- 
sanitary rural  conditions  are  not  peculiar  to  any  one  local- 
ity or  stock.  Similar  conditions  may  be  found  in  most  rural 
communities,  no  matter  where  situated,  and  they  are  the 
usual  findings  rather  than  the  exception. 

Rural-school  toilets.  Wherever  possible  the  rural  school 
should  be  equipped  with  a  flush  toilet.  This  is  not  so  diffi- 
cult to  install  as  is  commonly  believed;  since  all  that  is 
necessary  besides  ordinary  plumbing  is  a  pressure  tank  for 
storing  water  and  a  pipe  connection  with  sewer  or  septic 
tank. 

The  septic  tank.  A  septic  tank  is  an  arrangement  whereby 
sewage  is  emptied  into  a  water-tight  compartment,  in  which 
bacteria  are  at  work  to  change  the  solid  matter  into  liquid. 
As  the  liquid  is  formed  it  is  gradually  introduced  into  a 
second  compartment,  from  which  it  is  carried  to  a  distance 
and  distributed  through  the  soil.  If  improperly  made,  septic 
tanks  are  dangerous;  but  various  highly  satisfactory  forms 
have  been  worked  out,  and  minute  directions  are  available, 
so  that  with  proper  care  farmhouse  and  country  school  can 
be  equipped  with  indoor  flush  toilets  and  the  sewage  dis- 
posed of  without  danger  or  discomfort.  Septic  tanks  work 
best  on  hill  slopes  or  in  fairly  porous  soil.  Where  the  soil  is 
of  clay  special  precautions  have  to  be  taken  in  their  con- 


TOILETS  119 

struction,   so   that   the   leaching   process    (distribution   of 
liquid)  shall  be  effective. 

The  location  of  the  septic  tank  should  be  at  least  one 
hundred  feet  from  the  school  building  and  three  hundred 
feet  from  the  source  of  water  supply.  Where  possible,  it 
should  be  on  a  lower  level  than  the  water  supply,  although, 
if  it  is  properly  constructed,  and  the  distributing  drains 
carried  to  a  safe  distance,  there  is  little  danger  of  contami- 
nating drinking-water.  The  tank  itself  should  be  constructed 
of  water-tight  material  —  concrete  or  masonry  —  carefully 
made,  and  plastered  inside  with  a  half-inch  coat  of  rich 
cement  mortar.  The  top  may  be  made  of  heavy  wood  on 
hinges,  or  of  concrete  with  manholes  arranged  to  permit 
access  to  the  tanks  in  case  of  stoppage.  Connection  with 
the  plumbing  inside  the  building  should  be  by  means  of 
four-inch  vitrified  sewer  pipe,  and  care  should  be  taken  to 
make  all  joints  impregnable.  This  is  especially  important 
in  swampy  regions  where  there  is  much  ground  damp,  or  in 
wooded  regions  where  the  roots  of  trees  tend  to  break  or 
clog  the  piping.  Entrance  to  the  tank  should  be  below  the 
water  level,  so  that  the  entering  pipe  will  not  become 
clogged  with  surface  scum.  An  automatic  siphon  regulates 
the  escape  of  liquid  from  the  second  chamber  to  the  dis- 
tributing pipes. 

If  the  distributing  point  is  at  some  distance  the  liquid  may 
be  carried  by  sewer  pipe,  carefully  laid,  on  a  grade  of  not 
less  than  two  feet  in  every  one  hundred  feet.  These  distrib- 
uting pipes  should  be  hard-burned  agricultural  drain  tiles. 
Distributing  tiles  should  be  about  one  and  one-half  feet  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  should  fall  three  inches  in 
every  one  hundred  feet.  If  care  is  not  taken  in  regulating 
this  fall  much  difficulty  will  be  experienced,  because  liquid 
will  either  accumulate  at  one  spot  near  the  entrance  or  rush 
too  suddenly  to  the  extremes  of  the  pipes.   From  two  hun- 


120  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

dred  to  four  hundred  feet  of  distributing  tile  will  be  neces- 
sary, depending  upon  the  amount  of  sewage  and  the  nature 
of  the  soil.  Where  soil  is  mostly  clay  it  is  desirable  to  lay 
distribution  tiles  in  trenches  upon  beds  of  cinders  or  gravel, 
and  cover  with  earth.  Tiles  may  be  laid  in  one  line  or  in 
brandies;  but  in  the  latter  case  it  is  important  that  they 
should  be  so  laid  as  to  receive  equal  amounts  of  sewage.  The 
ground  above  the  distribution  tiles  should  be  planted  with 
grass  or  flowers. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  whenever  septic 
sewage  disposal  tanks  are  to  be  built,  directions  be  secured 
from  competent  authorities,  and  minutely  followed.  Poorly 
built  tanks  may  result  in  unpleasant  odors,  pollution  of  soil 
and  water,  gases  within  the  building,  or  clogging  of  pipes; 
and  one  such  tank  will  do  much  to  discourage  hygienic 
activities  in  the  community.  Directions  for  the  construc- 
tion of  septic  tanks  may  be  secured  from  various  State 
boards  of  health. 

Location  of  rural  toilets.  School  toilets  should  be  so  situ- 
ated as  to  be  easily  under  supervision  of  the  teacher,  reached 
quickly,  and  without  exposure  to  the  weather,  readily  acces- 
sible from  the  playground,  and  so  arranged  as  to  have  sepa- 
rate provision  made  for  the  sexes.  The  best  place  for  toilets 
is  within  the  school  building  —  usually  in  the  basement, 
writh  sections  at  opposite  ends  for  boys  and  girls.  Where 
water  can  be  secured  under  pressure,  and  sewer  or  septic 
tank  connections  made,  the  indoor  toilet  is  readily  installed. 
If  such  arrangements  cannot  be  made  toilets  must  be  placed 
outside. 

Outbuildings  should  be  placed  fifty  feet  away  from  the 
main  building  and  from  the  drinking-water  supply.  Build- 
ings for  boys  and  girls  should  be  placed  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  each  other,  and  the  approach  should  be 
screened  by  vines  on  trestles  or  by  shrubbery.   Dr.  Dresslar 


TOILETS  121 

suggests  planting  evergreen  shrubs,  so  that  a  thick  screen 
may  be  formed  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer.  Each  building 
should  be  well  constructed  and  kept  in  good  repair.  Win- 
dows and  ventilating  openings  should  be  screened  so  as  to 
exclude  flies  and  mosquitoes.  Doors  should  be  carefully 
hung  so  as  to  fit  tightly  when  closed,  and  should  be  provided 
with  latches  on  the  inside  and  padlocks  on  the  out,  so  that 
they  may  be  closed  to  tramps  when  the  school  is  not  in 
session.    Doors  should  swing  shut  when  not  in  use. 

Dug  privies.  The  ordinary  privy,  which  consists  of  a 
wooden  house  set  over  a  shallow  hole  dug  in  the  ground,  is 
utterly  unsafe,  either  for  farm  or  school.  In  some  instances 
the  nature  of  the  soil  is  such  that  it  does  no  harm,  but  with- 
out a  careful  geological  survey  it  is  usually  impossible  to 
make  sure,  and  there  is  serious  risk  of  contaminating  drink- 
ing-water and  surrounding  soil.  Moreover,  in  such  privies 
it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  exclude  flies  and  mosquitoes, 
and  as  a  result  there  is  constant  peril  of  typhoid  epi- 
demics. 

The  L.R.S.  Privy.  There  are  only  two  types  of  privies 
which  can  be  considered  safe.  In  one,  the  contents  are  dis- 
persed by  a  septic  tank  arrangement,  such  as  that  just 
described.  In  the  other,  the  contents  are  removed  at  fre- 
quent intervals.  Of  this  second  type  probably  the  best  form 
is  that  devised  by  Drs.  Lumsden,  Roberts,  and  Stiles  of 
the  United  States  Public  Health  Service,  and  known  as 
the  "L.R.S.  Privy."  The  L.R.S.  privy  is  constructed  on  the 
principle  of  the  septic  tank,  but  instead  of  distributing  the 
liquid  by  means  of  drains,  it  allows  it  to  flow  into  barrels, 
which  are  then  carted  away  and  emptied.  In  some  cases  the 
effluent  tank  is  stationary  and  the  liquid  is  pumped  into 
separate  vessels.  It  is  important  to  note  that  in  any  privy 
operated  on  the  principle  of  septic  tank  disposal  disinfectants 
must  not  be  used,  because  the  tank  depends  for  its  successful 


122  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

operation  on  liquefying  bacteria  which  would  be  killed  by 
carbolic,  lime,  potash,  and  the  like. 

Dry  privies.  Dry  privies  may  be  made  by  providing  a 
strong,  water-tight  box  or  tank  which  may  readily  be  re- 
moved and  carted  away,  or  by  building  a  waterproof  pit 
of  brick  or  concrete.  Access  should  be  had  to  box  or  pit 
by  means  of  doors  at  the  back  of  the  privy  hung  on  hinges 
and  made  to  fall  in  place  and  fit  tightly.  Each  dry  privy 
should  be  furnished  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  dust  or  ashes, 
and  children  should  be  taught  to  use  it. 

Buckets  are  easier  to  empty,  and  require  emptying  more 
frequently  than  pits  or  tanks.  The  contents  of  the  dry  privy 
should  be  carted  to  a  safe  distance  and  buried. 

Outhouses.  The  usual  privy  is  supplied  with  two  seats. 
These  should  be  separated  by  a  partition  to  secure  greater 
privacy.  One  seat  should  be  about  a  foot  high,  for  use  of 
the  smaller  pupils;  the  other  about  sixteen  inches  high,  for 
older  pupils.  A  urinal  should  be  supplied  in  the  boys'  toilet. 
The  practice  of  placing  an  inclined  trough  outside  the  build- 
ing, emptying  into  the  privy  vault  and  protected  by  a  high 
fence,  is  probably  unwise  because  it  encourages  groups  of 
boys  to  gather  within  the  enclosure  and  leads  to  undesirable 
play.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  provide  some  form  of 
urinal  within  the  building,  since  otherwise  boys  Use  the 
dust-bins  or  floor  for  that  purpose,  or  allow  the  toilet-seat 
to  become  soiled.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  build  a  slant- 
ing projecting  shelf  above  the  seats  in  such  a  way  as  to 
prevent  boys  from  standing  upon  them.  It  is  usually  wise 
also  to  provide  a  dust-bin  with  a  closed  top,  and  a  place 
for  removing  dirt  at  the  side  or  bottom.  The  seat-box 
above  the  vault  should  be  lined  with  zinc.  Seats  should 
be  of  wood,  and  covers  of  wood  lined  with  zinc.  Covers 
should  be  fastened  with  hinges  and  arranged  to  fall  of 
their   own   weight.     Openings  for  ventilation   should  be 


TOILETS  123 

provided  near  the  roof,  and  should  be  covered  with  wire 
screens. 

Detailed  suggestions  have  been  given  for  the  construction 
of  outdoor  privies  because  they  are  the  commonest  form  of 
toilet  for  the  rural  school.  Local  authorities  should,  how- 
ever, seriously  consider  the  question  before  deciding  in  their 
favor.  The  privy  of  the  country  school  is  removed  from 
supervision.  It  is  unattractive  and  sometimes  repelling  in 
appearance.  Because  it  is  built  of  wood  it  is  usually  covered 
with  obscene  markings.  Not  infrequently  it  is  the  scene  of 
disgusting  and  immoral  practices,  in  which  the  younger 
children  are  too  often  allowed  to  share.  An  indoor  flush 
toilet  is  more  expensive  than  a  dry  privy;  but  its  educational 
influence  is  decidedly  preferable. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Make  a  study  of  different  types  of  toilet-room  equipment  now  on  the 
market,  comparing  them  as  to  cleanliness,  freedom  from  odor,  dura- 
bility, simplicity,  cost. 

2.  What  are  the  common  ways  of  ventilating  toilet-rooms?  How  do  they 
work? 

3.  It  is  commonly  said  that  the  emptyings  of  privies  form  an  excellent 
fertilizer,  and  farmers  frequently  use  them  for  that  purpose.  Dr. 
F.  B.  Dresslar  and  others  claim  that  the  opposite  is  true.  What 
evidence  can  you  find  bearing  on  the  question? 

4.  How  is  the  sanitary  toilet  question  handled  by  the  army  in  time  of 
peace?  In  time  of  war?  "What  provisions  are  made  in  logging  or 
construction  camps?  What  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  epi- 
demics caused  by  poor  toilet  arrangements?  What  suggestions  can 
be  gained  for  public  school  practice? 

5.  How  and  to  what  extent  should  toilet-rooms  be  supervised? 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  and  May.   School  Buildings  and  Equipment.   Cleveland 
Education  Survey  Monograph.   Russell  Sage  Foundation.    (1916.) 

Dresslar,  F.  B.    Rural  Schoolhouses  and  Grounds.    United   States   Bureau 
of  Education,  Bulletin  no.  12.    (1914.) 

One  of  the  best  discussions  of  the  rural-school  problem. 


124  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.   School  Hygiene.   The  Macmillan  Company.    (1913.) 

Chapter  on  toilets  gives  good  descriptions  of  privies  for  rural  schools. 

Sanitary  Schoolhouses.    Legal  requirements  in  Indiana  and  Ohio.    United 
States  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  no.  52.    (1913.) 

Stiles,  C.  W.    The  Sanitary  Privy,  Its  Purposes  and  Construction.    Public 
Health  Bulletin  no.  37.    (Washington,  1910.) 
Excellent  discussion  of  the  rural  problem. 

See  also  bulletins  published  by  various  State  departments  of  education 

giving  suggestions  to  rural-school  authorities. 
See  also  printed  reports  of  education  surveys. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 

The  lesson  of  contagious  disease.  Several  years  ago,  when 
questions  of  school  hygiene  first  began  to  assume  a  prom- 
inent place  in  educational  discussion,  studies  were  made 
showing  the  number  of  cases' of  contagious  diseases  among 
school  children  for  each  month  in  the  year.  It  was  shown 
with  astounding  clearness  that  the  number  of  cases  increased 
with  the  beginning  of  cold  weather  in  the  fall,  readied  a  high 
peak  during  the  most  severe  winter  months,  and  gradually 
diminished  as  spring  came  on.  The  hygienic  implications 
were  all  too  clear,  for  the  epidemic  of  contagious  diseases 
coincided  almost  exactly  with  the  periods  during  which 
classroom  windows  were  closed  and  classrooms  were  arti- 
ficially heated.  One  of  the  results  of  this  discovery  was 
the  beginning  of  the  medical  inspection  service.  Another 
was  increased  interest  in  and  attention  to  the  problems  of 
ventilation. 

During  the  past  decade  immense  amounts  of  time, 
thought,  and  money  have  been  expended  in  the  effort  to 
secure  for  school  buildings  the  best  possible  systems  of 
heating  and  ventilating.  The  hot-air  furnace  has  been  re- 
placed by  steam  boilers.  Window  and  gravity  systems  of 
ventilation  have  given  way  to  the  electrically  driven  fan, 
which  blows  air  into  the  classrooms.  Elaborate  thermostat 
systems  have  been  installed,  and  in  order  to  keep  them  work- 
ing properly  teachers  have  been  warned  that  windows  must 
be  tiglitly  closed,  for  heating  plants  are  sensitive  things,  and 
nothing  must  be  done  which  might  disturb  their  equilibrium. 
Careful  tests  have  been  made  to  measure  the  carbon  dioxide 


126  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

content  of  the  classroom,  and  heating  engineers  have  con- 
scientiously tried  to  see  to  it  that  each  child  received  his 
33.3  cubic  feet  of  hot  fresh  air  every  minute  during  the 
school  day.  But  in  spite  of  all  these  improvements  the 
results  have  been  discouraging.  Epidemics  of  measles  and 
scarlet  fever  have  become  rarer,  because  doctors  have  been 
on  hand  to  detect  preliminary  cases  and  remove  the  offenders 
from  the  room,  but  colds  and  grippe  are  nearly  as  common 
as  heretofore.  Classrooms  are  frequently  stuffy  and  filled 
with  unpleasant  odors;  and  teachers,  after  vainly  endeavor- 
ing to  live  up  to  the  rules,  desperately  seek  relief  by  flinging 
windows  wide  open. 

Survey  findings.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  the 
newer  mechanical  devices  have  proved  worthless.  It  is  true 
that  ventilation,  even  in  our  newest  buildings,  is  frequently 
ineffective,  but  in  the  old  buildings  where  fans  have  not 
been  installed,  and  heating  and  ventilation  are  of  the  win- 
dow or  gravity  type,  conditions  are  sometimes  almost 
appalling.  Take,  for  example,  the  conditions  disclosed  in 
some  of  the  recent  surveys  of  educational  systems.  The 
'  report  from  Springfield,  Illinois,  runs  as  follows  :— 

Most  of  the  schoolrooms  of  Springfield  are  overheated.  The 
temperature  records  taken  in  classrooms  by  the  members  of  the 
survey  staff  were  one  hundred  and  seventy  in  number,  and  showed 
a  range  from  fifty-eight  to  eighty-six  degrees.  The  maximum 
temperature  allowed  in  classrooms  should  be  about  sixty-eight 
degrees.  More  than  two  thirds  of  the  temperatures  taken  were 
above  this,  and  nearly  half  of  them  were  above  seventy  degrees. 

In  a  number  of  the  buildings  the  outdoor  inlets  are  kept  shut; 
in  others,  the  air  is  sucked  out  of  the  basement  and  toilet-rooms 
instead  of  coming  from  outside,  and  in  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  buildings  some  part  of  the  equioment  has  been  left  uncom- 
pleted or  is  out  of  order,  so  that  the  ventilating  system  works 
only  partially. 

For  Salt  Lake  City  we  find  "members  of  the  survey  staff 
repeatedly   entered   schoolrooms   which   had    the   stifling 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  127 

temperature  of  seventy-five  to  eighty  degrees."  Judging 
from  the  records  we  may  conclude  that  more  than  twelve 
hundred  children  in  this  city  were  daily  subjected  to  suffo- 
cating temperatures  above  seventy-four  degrees.  It  is  little 
wonder  that  twenty  per  cent  were  subject  to  frequent  colds, 
or  that  more  than  eight  per  cent  were  found  to  have  chronic 
throat  or  nose  trouble.  "It  is  recommended  that  in  future 
buildings,  and  wherever  possible  in  the  old  buildings,  air 
washers  be  installed.  The  discolored  walls  of  very  many 
rooms  show  that  dirty  air  is  being  forced  into  the  building. 
Air  washers  are  not  expensive,  and  they  prevent  the  breath- 
ing of  much  injurious  dust.  The  prevalence  of  smoke  in  the 
atmosphere  of  Salt  Lake  City  during  certain  months  of  the 
year,  renders  their  use  more  than  ordinarily  urgent  in  this 
city."  Finally  we  read  in  the  Denver  Survey,  "In  all  the 
Denver  schoolrooms,  with  the  exception  of  two  buildings, 
the  air  of  the  classrooms  is  found  to  be  as  dry  as  that  of  a 
Sahara  Desert." 

Early  theories  concerning  ventilation.  One  hundred  and 
thirty  years  ago  the  great  French  scientist  Lavoisier  suc- 
ceeded in  identifying  carbon  dioxide  gas.  This  gas  was  a 
poison,  and  for  over  three  quarters  of  a  century  after  it  w;i^ 
identified  scientists  believed  that  the  presence  of  too  large 
quantities  of  this  gas  was  responsible  for  the  harmful  effect 
of  impure  air.  About  1861,  however,  the  German  chemist. 
Von  Pettenkofer,  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  in  which 
he  was  able  to  demonstrate  that  an  excess  of  carbon  dioxide 
was  not  responsible  for  the  unpleasant  symptoms  noted  in 
over-crowded  or  ill-ventilated  rooms.  While  he  was  con- 
vinced that  the  gas  was  not  dangerous,  nevertheless  he  felt 
that  since  it  was  always  found  where  many  people  were 
gathered  in  small,  closed  rooms  its  presence  in  considerable 
quantities  did  offer  a  trustworthy  index  of  the  presence  in 
the  air  of  other  harmful  impurities. 


128  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

It  was  on  the  basis  of  the  work  done  by  Lavoisier  and  Von 
Pettenkofer  that  many  of  our  State  laws  on  ventilation  have 
been  formed.  These  laws  specify  that  the  percentage  of 
carbon  dioxide  in  the  air  or  buildings  must  not  be  permitted 
to  exceed  from  seven  to  ten  parts  in  ten  thousand,  and  our 
ventilating  systems  are  built  to  keep  the  amount  of  the 
gas  within  these  limits.  1 

Some  recent  experiments.  Within  recent  times,  how- 
ever, a  series  of  exceedingly  interesting  experiments  have 
been  going  on  which  are  resulting  in  new  and  vastly  differ- 
ent theories  concerning  ventilation.  At  the  University  of 
Minnesota,  for  example,  two  stalls  were  built  as  nearly  air- 
tight as  they  could  possibly  be  made.  In  one  of  these  a  steer 
was  confined  for  thirty-seven  days  and  lived  in  perfect  com- 
fort and  robust  health.  He  made  true  and  steady  gains  in 
weight,  and  seemed  not  to  suffer  in  any  way.  In  another  a 
steer  was  kept  for  twenty-eight  days.  This  animal's  horn 
was  accidentally  broken,  but  not  only  did  he  enjoy  perfect 
health  and  comfort,  but  his  wound  healed  with  remarkable 
celerity,  in  an  atmosphere  so  contaminated  that  the  carbon 
dioxide  content  rose  to  ninety  times  the  normal. 

Professor  Leonard  Hill,  of  England,  caused  a  small  room 
to  be  built  and  made  completely  air-tight.  In  this  room  his 
students  lived  and  worked  for  days  at  a  time  in  perfect 
health  and  comfort.  He  writes:  "We  have  watched  them 
trying  to  light  a  cigarette  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  the 
experiment,  and,  puzzled  by  their  matches  going  out,  bor- 
rowing others,  only  in  vain.  They  had  not  sensed  the  per- 
centage of  the  diminution  of  oxygen,  which  fell  below  seven- 
teen." (That  is,  seventeen  per  cent  of  normal.)  The  normal 
proportion  of  carbon  dioxide  in  outdoor  air  is  about  three 
parts  in  ten  thousand.  The  greatest  amount  permitted  by 
ventilating  laws  is  commonly  ten  parts.  In  experimental 
chambers  of  the  kind  conducted  by  Professor  Hill  the  pro- 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  129 

portion  has  risen  as  high  as  two  hundred  and  thirty-one 
parts,  or  eighty  times  the  normal  amount  without  any  bad 
results  whatever. 

In  one  of  Dr.  Hill's  experiments  eight  persons  were  con- 
fined in  a  small,  air-tight  chamber  which  contained  approxi- 
mately three  cubic  meters  of  air.  The  oxygen  fell  from 
twenty  to  between  sixteen  and  seventeen  per  cent,  and  the 
carbon  dioxide  increased  from  .04  to  between  three  or  four 
per  cent,  or  nearly  one  hundred  times  its  usual  amount. 
As  the  oxygen  fell,  the  eight  persons  in  the  chamber  showed 
all  the  unmistakable  signs  of  suffering  from  vitiated  air. 
The  temperature  was  between  eighty  and  eighty-five  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  and  was  very  moist.  After  a  short  period  three 
electric  fans  attached  to  the  ceiling  of  the  room  were  started. 
The  air  remained  just  as  hot,  just  as  wet,  and  just  as  stale 
as  it  had  been  before,  but  the  turning-on  of  the  electric 
fans  brought  complete  relief,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
it  whirled  away  the  still  hotter  stationary  air  which  had 
gathered  as  a  sort  of  an  envelope  on  the  surface  of  the  body, 
and  allowed  the  heat  generated  by  the  body  t^o  be  carried  off. 

Of  perhaps  equal  interest  are  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Paul, 
of  the  University  of  Breslau,  who  found  that  when  human 
beings  were  placed  in  experimental  chambers  where  the  air 
was  hot  and  very  humid,  symptoms  of  discomfort  appeared 
within  a  very  few  minutes,  long  before  enough  of  the  poison- 
ous gases  could  have  accumulated  to  account  for  the  change. 
Without  telling  the  subject  in  the  room  what  was  happen- 
ing fans  were  started,  which  caused  the  air  to  move*  rapidly 
about.  Almost  at  once  the  unpleasant  symptoms  disap- 
peared. The  skin  became  cool  and  moist,  ancl  the  subject 
felt  that  fresh  air  had  been  supplied  to  the  room.  Later  the 
fans  were  stopped,  and,  after  the  subject  had  been  confined 
in  the  experimental  chambers  for  some  time  and  had  again 
shown  all  the  acute  symptoms  of  foul-air  poisoning,  a  tube 


130  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

was  passed  through  the  wall  of  the  chamber  and  the  subject 
was  allowed  to  breathe  fresh  air  from  outside  through  the 
tube.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  although  he  was  filling  his 
lungs  with  plenty  of  pure,  fresh  air,  the  subject  continued 
to  feel  just  as  uncomfortable  and  stifled  as  before.  Then  the 
process  was  reversed,  and  one  of  the  men  on  the  outside 
applied  his  nose  and  mouth  to  the  openings  of  the  tube  and 
filled  his  lungs  over  and  over  again  with  the  foul  air  con- 
tained in  the  closed  chamber.  He  suffered  not  the  slightest 
discomfort.  It  is  as  a  result  of  these  experiments  that  we 
find  the  amazing  statement:  "Air  is  not  to  breathe,  but  to 
bathe  in."  Stagnant  air  is  like  a  hot  wet  blanket  wrapped 
tightly  around  the  person's  body,  so  thick  and  impenetrable 
that  the  body  heat  cannot  escape,  and  a  man  is,  in  a  certain 
very  real  sense,  "consumed  in  his  own  fires."  When  the 
covering  is  broken  up  and  the  air  put  in  motion  relief  comes. 
Another  interesting  piece  of  evidence  is  cited  by  Dr. 
Leonard  P.  Ayres,  in  an  address  before  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association,  in  1911.   He  says:  — 

A  recent  impressive  illustration  occurred  last  winter,  during 
the  final  stages  of  construction  of  a  Connecticut  school  building 
equipped  with  humidifying  apparatus.  During  the  very  cold 
weather  in  December  the  carpenters  employed  on  the  inside  fin- 
ishing work  complained  of  the  cold  with  the  thermometer  at 
seventy-five  degrees.  The  foreman  did  not  wish  to  force  the 
temperature  higher,  because  the  new  woodwork  was  already  open- 
ing badly  at  the  joints.  Suddenly  a  discussion  with  the  architect 
about  the  new  humidifying  apparatus  occurred  to  him,  and  he  had 
the  steam  turned  on  in  the  fresh-air  chambers.  Soon  the  frost 
began  to  appear  on  the  windows,  and  in  three  hours  the  cracks 
in  the  new  woodwork  were  entirely  closed.  The  most  remarkable 
result,  however,  was  the  effect  of  the  humidity  upon  the  workmen. 
Before  the  steam  had  been  on  half  an  hour  the  men  who  had  been 
complaining  about  the  cold  began  to  take  off  their  coats  and  then 
their  vests.  The  temperature  was  lowered,  and  soon  the  men  were 
happily  working  in  their  shirt-sleeves  with  the  temperature  at 
sixty-eight  degrees. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  131 

The  Springfield  Y.M.C.A.  experiment.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  experiments  from  the  point  of  view  of  school  men 
was  that  carried  on  during  the  winter  of  1912  in  the  gymna- 
sium building  of  the  Y.M.C.A.  training  college  at  Spring- 
field, Massachusetts.  This  is  a  large  modern  building, 
including  two  gymnasiums,  laboratory,  offices,  and  class- 
rooms. It  is  used  practically  all  the  time.  Under  the  direc- 
tion of  Dr.  James  H.  McCurdy  an  experiment  was  insti- 
tuted in  which,  instead  of  taking  air  from  outside  the  build- 
ing and  delivering  it  heated  to  the  various  rooms,  as  is  the 
usual  plan,  the  gymnasium  was  run  for  weeks  at  a  time  by 
simply  using  the  same  air  over  and  over  again.  The  only 
fresh  air  which  was  allowed  in  the  buildings  was  that  which 
came  in  through  natural  leakage.  When  the  process  of 
re-circulation  of  air  was  well  under  way,  careful  tests  were 
made  to  determine  the  volume  of  air  moved,  the  humidity 
and  temperature,  the  chemical  constituents  of  the  air,  and 
the  feelings  of  the  students  who  were  working  in  the  build- 
ing.   The  results  were  amazing. 

It  was  found,  in  the  first  place,  that  through  the  process 
of  re-circulation  it  was  possible,  by  washing  the  air  carefully 
each  time  it  was  circulated,  to  keep  it  more  free  from  dust 
and  bacteria  than  the  air  outside.  In  the  second  place,  the 
washing  of  the  air  also  removed  all  unpleasant  odors  so  that 
the  building  smelt  sweet  and  clean.  In  the  third  place,  the 
air  was  kept  at  the  right  degree  of  moisture.  In  the  fourth 
place,  during  hot  weather  it  was  just  as  possible  to  cool  the 
air  of  the  building  by  the  washing  process  as  it  was  to  warm 
the  building  with  moist  clean  air  during  the  winter.  In  the 
fifth  place,  and  from  some  points  of  view  most  amazing,  the 
expense  of  operating  the  ventilating  and  heating  plant  was 
reduced  from  $1.07  to  $.52  an  hour.  This  reduction  was 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  under  ordinary  conditions  it  is 
necessary  to  take  the  air  at  the  outside  temperature  and 


132  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

bring  it  up  to  room  temperature.  When  the  re-circulation 
is  in  process,  extra  heat  is  needed  only  to  make  good  the 
heat  loss  which  the  air  has  incurred  during  its  passage 
through  the  building. 

The  Springfield  experiment  has  been  so  successful  that 
many  people  do  not  hesitate  to  declare  that  ventilating 
schemes  of  the  future  will  be  entirely  based  on  the  re-circu- 
lation plan.  In  discussing  this  matter  Dr.  Luther  H.  Gulick 
has  said :  — 

Ventilation  seeks  to  control  the  conditions  of  the  atmosphere 
in  which  the  body  is  immersed,  rather  than  to  control  its  com- 
position; because  its  composition  is  practically  stable  and  needs 
no  attention,  while  its  condition  is  exceedingly  changeable  as  well 
as  important.  The  ideal  ventilation  for  a  school  building  consists 
in  re-circulating  and  properly  conditioning  its  contained  air. 
The  advantages  are  that  the  air  may  be  kept  under  more  health- 
giving  conditions,  through  more  perfect  control  of  temperature, 
humidity,  air  movements,  dust,  odors,  and  also  because  of  the 
financial  saving.  That  is,  we  have  now  arrived  at  such  a  knowledge 
of  ventilation  that  it  is  possible  to  have  indoors  and  practically 
all  the  time  those  conditions  which  are  found  outdoors  only  when 
Nature  is  at  her  best.  Man  has  at  last  accomplished,  with  reference 
to  the  air  he  breathes  and  in  which  he  is  enveloped,  what  he 
learned  to  do  years  ago  with  reference  to  the  water  we  drink  — 
have  it  at  its  best  all  the  time. 

Other  experiments,  quite  different  from  that  so  glowingly 
referred  to  by  Dr.  Gulick,  were  those  carried  on  in  the  open- 
air  classes  for  tubercular  children.  Here  it  was  found  that 
under  the  conditions  of  open  air,  warm  clothing,  good  food, 
and  plenty  of  sleep,  children  became  healthier  and  more 
alert  than  were  their  classmates  in  the  best-ventilated  school- 
room. All  the  evidence  of  the  open-air  classroom  seems  to 
point  away  from  the  validity  of  the  re-circulation  plan  and 
toward  the  necessity  of  having  entirely  fresh  air  surround- 
ing the  children.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  there  were  so 
many  elements  entering  into  the  open-air  class  experiment 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  133 

that  the  success  of  the  work  could  not  properly  be  attribute  1 
to  the  one  cause  of  open  air.   One  fact,  however,  proved  to 

be  especially  significant.  It  has  been  demonstrated  clearly 
that  children  who  attend  the  open-air  class  speedily  improve 
in  appetite.  This  has  been  found  true  even  in  those  cases 
where  children  in  the  open-air  classes  did  not  seem  to  gain 
in  any  other  way.  Until  recently  very  little  attention  was 
paid  to  this  fact,  but  within  the  past  few  months  experi- 
ments have  been  conducted  which  emphasize  its  impor- 
tance from  the  point  of  view  of  classroom  ventilation. 

Work  of  the  New  York  State  Ventilating  Commission.  In 
1913,  at  the  request  of  the  New  York  Association  for 
Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Poor,  the  Governor  of  the 
State  appointed  a  ventilation  commission  for  the  purpose  of 
studying,  in  a  scientific  manner,  various  problems  of  venti- 
lation. The  cost  of  the  commission  was  met  from  part  of  a 
fund  established  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Milbank  Anderson  for 
carrying  on  various  phases  of  constructive  social  investi- 
gation. For  the  past  three  years  this  commission  has  been 
carrying  on  a  series  of  extensive  and  very  careful  experi- 
ments, and  has  come  to  some  exceedingly  interesting  con- 
clusions. It  finds,  for  example,  that  even  very  hot,  moist 
rooms  have  very  little  effect  upon  the  actual  power  of  the 
subject  to  do  mental  work.  Heat  raises  the  temperature  of 
the  body,  increases  the  heart  rate,  and  lowers  the  blood 
pressure.  People  do  not  feel  like  working  in  a  very  hot, 
damp  room,  but  if  obliged  to  work  they  do  so  very  success- 
fully. Stagnant  air  at  the  same  temperature  as  fresh  air, 
even  when  it  contains  twenty  or  more  parts  of  carbon  dioxide 
and  all  the  organic  and  other  substances  in  breathed  air  of 
an  occupied  room,  according  to  the  commission's  findings, 
has  no  effect  on  any  of  the  physiological  responses  listed 
above,  nor  on  the  power  to  do  physical  or  mental  work,  nor 
even  on  the  sensations  of  comfort  of  the  subject  breathing  it. 


134  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

On  the  other  hand,  and  this  is  an  immensely  important 
finding,  the  commission  found  that  vitiated  air  results  in  a 
diminished  appetite  for  food.  When  it  is  moderately  cool 
and  in  motion  students  can  work,  study,  and  play  in  foul  air 
as  properly  as  in  fresh,  but  they  cannot  work  up  an  appetite 
in  it.  In  the  New  York  Commission's  tests,  after  the  sub- 
jects had  been  in  the  experimental  room  for  some  two  or 
three  hours,  a  luncheon,  made  up  of  weighted  portions  of 
known  caloric  values,  was  served  and  the  amount  of  food 
left  uneaten  was  weighed,  to  determine  by  difference  the 
amounts  consumed.  The  diet  was  varied  from  day  to  day, 
but  was  so  arranged  that  each  article  of  food  appeared  an 
equal  number  of  times  on  days  when  regular  ventilation 
was  provided  and  on  other  days  when  only  foul  air  was 
admitted  to  the  chamber.  On  the  no-ventilation  days  the 
carbon  dioxide  averaged  between  twenty-nine  and  fifty 
parts,  and  there  was  usually  a  slight  odor  noticeable  in  the 
room.  Sometimes  the  odor  was  strong  enough  to  be  un- 
pleasant. It  was  found  to  be  a  practically  unvarying  rule 
that  more  food  was  eaten  on  the  days  when  ventilation  was 
supplied  than  on  the  days  when  subjects  sat  in  foul  air. 

It  is  interesting  to  note,  too,  in  connection  with  this 
experiment,  that  when  the  subjects  were  asked  each  day 
concerning  their  opinions  as  to  the  comfort  of  the  atmos- 
phere —  the  actual  condition  being  kept  secret  —  they 
usually  felt  that  the  no-ventilation  days  were  the  more 
comfortable.    In  giving  its  report  the  Commission  said :  — 

These  experiments  seem  to  warrant  the  conclusions  that  there 
are  substances  present  in  the  air  of  an  unventilated,  occupied 
room  (even  when  its  temperature  and  humidity  are  controlled) 
which  in  some  way,  and  without  producing  conscious  discomfort 
or  detectable  psychological  symptoms,  dimmish  the  appetite  for 
food.  The  effect  of  such  an  influence  might  in  time  be  very  impor- 
tant, and  it  seems  possible  that  the  observed  beneficial  effect  of 
fresh  air  may  to  some  extent  be  connected  with  this  phenomenon. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  135 

Five  principles  of  ventilation.  The  experiments  described 
above  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  which  have  been  carried 
on.  Although  the  results  are  in  some  cases  confusing,  and 
many  problems  have  arisen  which  call  for  further  experi- 
mentation before  they  can  be  settled,  there  seem  to  be  five 
general  rules  which  have  been  fairly  well  established. 

1.  Air  warm,  not  hot.  In  the  first  place,  air  should  be 
warm,  not  hot.  Probably  one  of  the  most  important  results 
of  over-heating  in  the  classroom  is  that  originally  demon- 
strated by  Leonard  Hill,  and  later  confirmed  by  James 
Alexander  Miller,  of  the  New  York  Commission.  These 
scientists  have  succeeded  in  demonstrating  that  over-heated 
air  promotes  congestion  of  the  membranes  of  the  nose, 
which  in  turn  frequently  brings  about  a  susceptibility  to 
infection.  It  now  seems  probable  that  many  of  our  colds 
and  coughs  may  be  charged  directly  to  over-heated  rooms. 
It  was  found  in  the  New  York  Commission  on  Ventilation 
experiment  that  the  temperature  of  the  body  rises  at  almost 
exactly  the  same  rate  that  the  temperature  of  the  room 
rises.  The  most  desirable  temperature  for  the  classroom 
where  children  spend  most  of  their  time  sitting  still  seems  to 
be  from  sixty -five  to  seventy  degrees  Fahrenheit,  depending 
upon  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  amount  of 
motion  in  the  air. 

2.  Air  clean,  not  dirty.  The  second  rule  is  that  air  should 
be  clean,  not  dirty.  This  rule  applies  more  to  the  air  which 
we  take  into  the  lungs  than  to  the  air  which  surrounds  the 
body.  Dirty  air  is  apt  to  carry  with  it  small  particles  of 
mineral  matter  which  pierce  the  lining  of  the  lungs  and 
set  up  an  irritation  which  may  result  in  the  begiiming  of 
tuberculosis. 

3.^  Air  moist,  not  dry.  The  third  rule  is  that  air  should  be 
moist,  not  dry.  All  outdoor  air  carries  with  it  a  great  deal  of 
moisture.  When  we  take  a  cubic  foot  of  out-of-door  air  at 


136  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

a  temperature  of  thirty-two  degrees  and  heat  it  to  seventy 
degrees,  we  have  multiplied  its  capacity  for  holding  mois- 
ture three  and  one-half  times.  If  we  do  not  add  to  our 
heating  plant  some  method  of  supplying  the  extra  moisture 
which  is  needed,  we  fill  our  classrooms  with  dry,  thirsty  air, 
which  quickly  flows  around  the  bodies  of  the  children  and 
absorbs  the  moisture  on  their  skins  and  mucous  membranes. 
As  soon  as  this  protective  covering  of  moisture  is  taken 
away  the  skin  becomes  dry  and  parched,  the  face  is  flushed, 
and  the  mucous  membrane  surfaces  become  irritated,  so 
that  they  are  peculiarly  sensitive.  As  was  suggested  earlier, 
dry,  hot  air  renders  children  especially  liable  to  catch  con- 
tagious diseases. 

In  considering  this  question  of  the  action  of  dry  air  upon 
the  skin  it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  complexions  of  girls 
in  Ireland,  the  Maritime  Provinces  of  Canada,  and  the  coast 
districts  of  Washington  and  Oregon,  with  the  complexions 
of  the  women  in  those  of  our  Western  and  Middle  Western 
States  where  there  is  little  rainfall  and  the  air  is  particu- 
larly dry.  Humidity,  of  course,  is  not  the  only  factor  which  < 
enters  into  the  question  of  clear  skin  and  rosy  cneeks.  \ 
Moderate  temperature,  for  instance,  seems  to  be  a  help, 
and  extreme  hot  or  cold  weather  a  hindrance.  But,  in  gen- 
eral, it  seems  to  be  true  that  under  ordinary  outdoor  tem- 
perature the  body  thrives  when  the  humidity  shows  from 
fifty  to  eighty  per  cent  of  saturation,  and  suffers  when  the 
humidity  drops  very  much  below  this  point.  When  we  read 
the  reports  of  the  various  educational  surveys,  which  tell 
us  that  the  average  air  in  classrooms  visited  ranges  from 
only  twenty  to  thirty  degrees  of  saturation,  we  can  easily 
understand  why  it  is  that  plants  in  a  classroom  wither  and 
die  and  children  become  weary. 

.4.  Air  moving,  not  still.    In  the  fourth  place,  air  must  be 
moving,  not  still.  Sometimes  in  a  cold  room  it  is  found  that, 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  137 

although  the  radiators  are  very  hot,  they  do  not  seem  able 
to  pass  their  heat  out  into  the  room.  If  we  open  the  doors 
and  windows  for  a  minute  or  two  and  then  quickly  shut 
them  we  find  that  something  seems  to  have  happened  to 
the  way  the  radiators  work,  and  the  room  becomes  quickly 
warm.  The  explanation  is  that  in  the  quiet  classroom  each 
radiator  has  become  surrounded  by  a  thick  blanket  of  quiet 
air  which  has  held  in  the  heat  and  prevented  it  from  passing 
to  the  rest  of  the  room.  When  doors  and  windows  were  open 
a  draught  was  created,  which  broke  up  this  blanket  and  set 
the  air  of  the  room  into  motion. 

In  certain  ways  human  beings  are  very  much  like  the  radi- 
ators. They  are  constantly  giving  heat  off  into  the  air.  If 
the  air  is  very  still,  it  forms  a  blanket  around  the  body, 
which  holds  in  the  heat  and  prevents  it  from  being  properly 
carried  away.  If  the  air  is  hot  and  dry,  it  absorbs  the  mois- 
ture around  the  body,  and  this  process  of  evaporation  cools 
the  skin;  but  if  the  air  is  damp,  evaporation  cannot  take 
place,  and  the  body  is  held  by  a  hot,  sticky  blanket  which 
renders  the  person  most  uncomfortable.  If  doors  or  windows 
are  opened,  or  an  electric  fan  is  started,  just  as  was  the  case 
with  the  radiator  the  air  is  set  in  motion  and  driven  away, 
so  that  heat  is  carried  off  and  the  body  is  bathed  in  a  moving 
stream  of  fresh,  cool  air.  Under  ordinary  classroom  tem- 
peratures absolutely  quiet  air  is  extremely  uncomfortable. 
All  the  air  in  the  classrooms  should  be  moving  all  the  time. 
A  few  years  ago  air  entering  the  classrooms  was  calculated 
on  the  basis  of  the  amount  each  child  needed  to  breathe. 
Now  we  are  coming  to  believe  that  the  important  thing  is 
to  find  out  how  much  air  the  child  needs  to  bathe  in. 

5.  Air  of  changing  temperature.  The  fifth  rule  is  that 
air  should  be  of  changing  temperatures.  Dr.  Ellsworth 
Huntington,  of  Yale,  was  one  of  the  first  people  to  demon- 
strate clearly  the  stimulating  effect  of  changes  in  tempera- 


138  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

ture.  Dr.  Huntington  studied  the  wages  of  factory  workers 
in  Connecticut,  and  the  marks  of  students  at  West  Point 
and  Annapolis.  He  found  that  hot  weather  makes  people 
somewhat  inefficient  and  cold  weather  makes  them  even 
more  so.  But,  generally  speaking,  when  the  temperature 
is  not  above  seventy  or  below  forty-three,  any  change  in 
weather,  whether  it  be  warmer  or  colder,  seems  to  have  a 
distinctly  stimulating  effect. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  warm  countries  seem  to  make 
people  lazy,  and  Northerners  are  apt  to  speak  scornfully 
of  those  who  have  the  "to-morrow"  habit.  It  is  true  that 
living  in  the  land  of  perpetual  summer  does  have  a  curiously 
discouraging  effect  upon  the  desire  to  work,  and  the  reason 
probably  is  to  be  found  in  this  very  question  of  changes  in 
temperature.  Where  the  range  of  temperature  is  very  slight, 
and  the  thermometer  registers  very  nearly  the  same  day 
after  day  and  week  after  week,  even  though  there  are  no 
excessively  hot  periods,  mind  and  body  begin  to  work  slowly. 
The  human  organism  needs  the  stimulus  of  change. 

So  we  have  our  five  modern  principles  of  ventilation.  Air 
should  be  warm,  not  hot;  clean,  not  dirty;  moist,  not  dry; 
moving,  not  still ;  and  of  constantly  changing  temperatures. 
If  these  principles  are  valid,  and  all  the  evidence  seems  to  be 
pointing  that  way,  it  means  that  all  our  present  systems  of 
heating  and  ventilation  must  be  subjected  to  careful  scru- 
tiny, for  they  were  devised  to  fit  very  different  theories.  We 
shall  retain  some  of  our  methods  because  we  find  they  work, 
and  our  changes  will  come  in  the  explanation  we  give  for 
them.  There  are  other  schemes  which  we  have  tried,  how- 
ever, and  with  which  we  have  already  had  to  acknowledge 
failure.  Here  we  must  cast  aside  the  old  apparatus  and  sys- 
tems of  heating  and  ventilating,  and  experiment  with  new 
methods  and  new  processes  in  the  light  of  our  more  recent 
discoveries. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  139 

The  ventilating  engineer.  There  are  two  main  reasons 
why  the  ventilating  of  schoolhouses  is  usually  so  unsatis- 
factory. In  the  first  place,  it  is  not  until  very  recently  that 
physiologists  or  medical  men  have  begun  to  find  out  what 
they  mean  by  fresh  air.  Even  now,  statements  as  to  what 
kinds  and  conditions  of  air  are  most  suited  to  the  human 
body  are  in  the  nature  of  hypotheses,  which  furnish  us  with 
guides  for  practice  and  experiment,  but  have  still  to  be  sub- 
jected to  more  definite  proof.  Ventilating  engineers  have 
been  trying  to  give  good  ventilation  without  knowing  what 
good  ventilation  is. 

The  other  probable  reason  for  unsatisfactory  conditions 
in  schoolhouses  lies  in  the  fact  that  even  at  the  present  time 
school  boards  and  superintendents  fail  to  realize  that  the 
problem  of  ventilating  and  heating  belongs  to  a  special  field, 
and  must  be  handled  by  experts  in  that  field.  When  a  new 
building  is  being  erected  the  architect  is  usually  asked  to 
take  charge  of  installing  the  ventilating  system.  In  some 
cases  he  secures  the  assistance  of  a  competent  heating  and 
ventilating  engineer,  and  places  the  whole  matter  in  his 
hands.  All  too  frequently,  however,  the  architect  feels  that 
he  knows  enough  to  supervise  such  work  himself,  and  the 
heating  and  ventilating  plant  is  installed  by  a  contractor 
under  the  supervision  of  the  architect.  Mr.  G.  G.  Kimball, 
one  of  the  members  of  the  New  York  Commission,  has  esti- 
mated that  the  cost  of  the  very  best  engineering  services  for 
the  design  and  supervision  of  a  heating  and  ventilating  plant 
varies  from  one  half  to  three  quarters  of  one  per  cent  of  the 
cost  of  the  building.  Where  a  first-class  engineer  is  em- 
ployed the  amount  saved  in  installation  and  operation  is 
immensely  greater  than  his  charge  for  services.  The  installa- 
tion t)f  such  a  plant  is  always  costly.  Errors  in  planning  and 
building  are  easily  made,  and  once  made  are  frequently 
impossible  to  repair.    An  inferior  plant  is  so  difficult  to 


140  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

handle  and  so  seriously  impairs  the  efficiency  of  the  school 
that  neglect  to  hire  competent  engineering  service  in  the 
first  place  is  evidence  of  a  stupid  and  short-sighted  policy. 

Not  only  must  the  equipment  be  planned  and  installed 
under  expert  supervision,  but  care  must  also  be  taken  to 
see  that  adequate  funds  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
engineer.  It  is  peculiarly  true  in  the  field  of  heating  and 
ventilating  that  an  adequate  initial  investment  saves  con- 
stantly incurring  heavier  expenses  later.  Whenever  a  school 
board  contemplates  cutting  down  the  appropriation,  it 
should  first  give  the  heating  engineer  a  chance  to  argue  in 
defense  of  his  original  plan. 

Legislation.  As  those  who  are  building  schoolhouses  try 
to  put  into  practice  the  modern  theories  of  heating  and 
ventilating  they  will  find  that  in  many  cases  progress  is 
seriously  hampered  because,  in  an  effort  to  insure  good 
conditions  in  school  buildings,  laws  have  been  placed  upon 
the  statute  books  making  compulsory  conditions  which 
now  seem  unadvisable.  For  example,  in  Delaware,  Idaho, 
Indiana,  Massachusetts,  Montana,  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  South  Dakota,  and  Vermont,  the  law  requires 
that  the  temperature  be  kept  at  seventy  degrees  Fahren- 
heit. Recent  investigation  seems  to  show  that  if  the  air  is 
properly  humidified  temperatures  not  higher  than  sixty -five 
degrees  are  desirable,  and  seventy  is  certainly  too  high. 
In  twenty -one  States  the  law  requires  that  fresh  air  be  pro- 
vided at  the  rate  of  thirty  cubic  feet  per  pupil  per  minute. 
The  wording  of  these  laws  and  regulations  varies,  but  it  is 
possible  that  in  many  States  attempts  to  install  systems  of 
re-circulation  of  air  will  be  blocked  by  existing  laws. 

In  a  similar  way,  various  States  give  definite  direction  for 
the  location  of  air  inlets  and  outlets,  their  size,  the  instal- 
lation of  registers,  flues,  dampers,  and  the  like.  In  New 
Jersey  the  velocity  of  the  air  introduced  should  not  be  over 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  141 

three  hundred  feet  per  minute.  In  New  York  it  must  be 
over  three  hundred,  but  not  more  than  four  hundred  feet 
per  minute.  In  some  States  the  regulations  concerning  heat 
and  ventilation  are  the  results  of  legislative  enactment  and 
can  only  be  changed  by  legislative  procedure.  In  others  the 
matters  have  been  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  State  board 
of  health,  chief  of  police,  or  board  of  education.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  future  regulations  will  be  of  this  latter  type,  so 
that  they  may  be  changed  if  scientific  experiment  later 
points  to  the  desirability  of  doing  so. 

Stoves.  Practically  all  rural  schools  of  the  United  States 
are  heated  by  stoves.  In  all  too  many  cases  the  stove  is 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  room  and  is  of  the  old-fashioned 
type  with  direct  radiation,  so  that  children  sitting  near  are 
uncomfortably  warm  and  those  at  a  distance  are  cold.  For- 
tunately, in  many  States  there  has  been  a  direct  and  strong 
movement  away  from  the  old-fashioned  unprotected  stove 
and  in  favor  of  the  jacketed  stove.  In  some  cases  this  is 
brought  about  by  prohibitory  rulings  or  legislation.  For 
example,  Indiana  makes  it  a  requirement  that  all  stoves 
shall  be  surrounded  by  a  jacket  consisting  of  two  sheets,  the 
outer  sheet  being  of  heavy  galvanized  iron  lined  with  sheet 
asbestos.  The  inner  jacket,  which  must  be  not  less  than 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  distant  from  the  outer,  must  be 
of  tin  or  some  other  suitable  metal.  The  jacket  must  stand 
at  least  three  inches  away  from  the  stove,  and  must  extend 
to  the  floor. 

North  Dakota  and  Minnesota,  while  actually  not  legislat- 
ing against  the  unjacketed  stove,  provide  State  aid  where 
stoves  of  the  proper  kind  are  supplied.  In  Minnesota,  if 
aid  is  to  be  granted,  the  jackets  must  be  of  iron  or  copper- 
plated  steel,  with  a  lining  of  asbestos  and  an  inside  lining  of 
tin,  with  ample  air  space  between.  It  must  stand  six  inches 
away  from  the  stove,  and  the  lower  edge  must  not  be  less 


142  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

than  twelve  inches  above  the  floor.  South  Dakota  makes 
the  approval  of  rural-school  plans  by  the  State  Superintend- 
ent dependent  among  other  things  upon  having  stoves  sup- 
plied with  a  metal  jacket  extending  one  or  two  feet  above 
the  stove,  and  with  arches  around  the  bottom  extending 
from  eight  to  ten  inches  above  the  floor. 

The  reason  why  so  much  emphasis  is  placed  upon  using 
a  jacket  for  schoolroom  stoves  is,  that  without  the  jacket 
heat  is  distributed  only  to  those  children  who  are  sitting 
near  the  stove.  No  currents  of  air  are  set  up,  and  the  heat 
is  not  carried  to  other  parts  of  the  room.  With  the  jackets 
properly  made  and  adjusted,  cold  air  is  admitted  from  the 
outside  of  the  building,  is  carried  up  inside  the  jacket,  and 
warmed  as  it  circulates  around  the  stove,  and  passing  up 
through  the  jacket,  flows  out  through  the  room  near  the 
ceiling.  The  foul  air  of  the  room  is  drawn  under  the  jacket 
and  acts  as  a  draught  for  the  fire.  Part  of  it  also  mixes  with 
the  fresh  air  being  admitted  from  the  outside,  and  is  re- 
circulated throughout  the  room.  Where  jackets  are  prop- 
erly made  and  installed,  the  system  works  fairly  well.  It 
is  usually  necessary,  however,  to  open  the  windows  instead 
of  merely  depending  on  stoves  for  ventilation.  Ventilation 
secured  in  the  latter  way  is  thoroughly  successful  only  when 
great  difference  is  noted  between  inside  and  outside  tem- 
peratures. 

Furnaces.  The  furnace  is  constructed  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  jacketed  stove.  It  consists  roughly  of  a  fire-box 
inside,  a  jacket  outside,  and  space  between  to  which  air 
is  admitted  and  where  it  becomes  warm  and  is  then  sent 
through  pipes  to  the  rooms  of  the  building.  Furnace  fires 
form  an  easy  way  of  heating  school  buildings.  They  cost 
very  little,  are  simple  and  inexpensive  to  repair,  and  are 
so  simple  to  run  that  very  little  special  training  is  necessary 
for  the  job.   Another  and  very  important  factor  is  that  the 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  143 

furnace  fire  can  be  allowed  to  go  out  at  the  end  of  the 
school  day  without  danger  of  putting  the  system  out  of 
order.  The  chief  disadvantage  of  heating  by  means  of 
furnaces  is  that  it  is  very  easy  to  make  the  fire  too  hot,  so 
that  the  air  when  sent  up  into  the  classrooms  is  actually  hot 
instead  of  warm.  As  we  have  already  seen,  children  do  not 
need  to  be  supplied  with  hot  air  in  order  to  keep  them  com- 
fortable on  cold  days;  what  they  do  need  is  a  plentiful  supply 
of  rapidly  moving,  warm,  moist  air.  It  is  possible  to  equip 
furnaces  with  fans  and  moistening  apparatus,  so  that  these 
two  latter  requirements  may  be  provided,  but  there  are 
at  present  very  few  places  where  this  has  been  done. 

It  is  also  difficult  to  distribute  the  warm  air  evenly  in 
the  different  rooms  of  the  building.  Usually  one  or  two 
rooms  will  receive  more  than  their  share  because  the  supply 
pipes  are  shorter  and  run  at  a  more  direct  angle  to  these 
rooms.  Even  where  all  supply  pipes  are  furnished  with 
dampers,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  see  to  it  that  every  room  is 
properly  heated. 

In  the  third  place,  furnaces  frequently  get  out  of  order, 
and  the  gases  formed  in  the  fire-box  are  allowed  to  leak 
through  cracks  into  the  air-box  and  so  find  their  way  into 
the  classrooms.  Furnaces  are  still  being  used  in  our  old 
buildings  and  in  some  of  our  new  small  buildings,  but  they 
are  rapidly  being  displaced  by  other  forms  of  heating. 

One  of  the  difficulties  most  frequently  encountered  in 
using  hot-air  furnaces  for  school  buildings  is  that  when  a 
wind  blows  strongly  against  one  side  of  the  building  the  air 
pressure  on  that  side  becomes  so  strong  that  it  prevents  hot 
air  from  rising  through  the  furnace  pipes  into  the  rooms  on 
that  side.  When  candles  are  carried  from  room  to  room  it 
is  found  that  in  certain  rooms  the  flame  flickers  outward, 
but  in  others  it  is  actually  drawn  down  toward  the  register, 
because,  instead  of  having  hot  air  come  up  into  the  room, 


144  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

the  cold  air  already  contained  in  the  room  is  being  sucked 
down  by  the  furnace. 

It  was  because  of  the  difficulty  of  distributing  heat  evenly 
to  all  the  rooms  of  the  building  on  windy  days  that  furnace 
heating  fell  so  much  into  disfavor.  It  is  interesting  to  note, 
therefore,  that  recently  experiments  have  been  made  which 
seem  to  show  how  to  obviate  this  difficulty.  At  present 
some  of  our  most  carefully  planned  private  residences  have 
given  up  the  idea  of  steam  heating  and  returned  to  hot-air 
furnaces.  Each  room  in  the  house  is  provided  with  a  flue 
which  goes  up  through  the  walls  and  empties  into  an  air 
chamber  at  the  top.  By  means  of  this  construction,  even 
when  all  the  doors  are  closed  between  rooms  and  strong 
winds  are  blowing  against  one  side,  the  air  pressure  through- 
out all  the  rooms  is  equalized  and  the  heat  from  the  furnace 
is  therefore  able  to  distribute  itself  to  all  parts  of  the  house. 

These  new  houses,  also,  are  usually  provided  with  a  means 
of  cutting  off  the  outdoor  intake.  When  the  weather  is 
extremely  cold  the  intake  from  outdoors  is  closed  and  the 
air  already  within  the  house  is  re-circulated,  either  through 
natural  circulation  or  with  the  assistance  of  an  electric 
blower.  This  means,  of  course,  an  immense  saving  of  fuel 
and  the  results  secured  seem  entirely  satisfactory. 

The  experiments  just  described  have  been  actually  tried 
out  in  a  sufficient  number  of  cases  so  that  there  seems  to  be 
little  doubt  of  the  success  of  the  scheme.  It  is  probably  true 
that  when  school  buildings  of  moderate  size  are  built  with 
flues  and  equalizing  air  chamber,  the  hot-air  furnace  will 
form  an  economical  and  exceedingly  satisfactory  method 
of  heating. 

Hot- water  heating.  Systems  of  heating  schoolhouses  by 
hot  water  seem  to  be  much  more  used  in  England  than 
in  the  United  States.  In  this  country  they  are  rather  out 
of  favor,  probably  because  after  being  installed  they  are 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  145 

constantly  getting  out  of  order  and  because,  since  they  need 
a  large  radiating  surface,  the  installment  of  pipes  and  radia- 
tors is  rather  cumbersome  and  expensive.  Systems  of  hot- 
water  heating  are  simple  and  very  easy  to  handle.  They  do 
not  require  either  very  constant  attention  or  very  much 
skill.  Admirers  of  the  system  claim  that  hot-water  plants 
easily  carry  heat  for  long  distances,  so  that  the  system  is 
particularly  adapted  to  central  heating  plants  which  supply 
rooms  of  buildings  at  some  distance  from  the  center. 

Steam  heating.  In  the  United  States'"  the  commonest 
form  of  heating  for  school  buildings  is  by  low-pressure 
steam  plants.  Steam  radiators  give  out  a  steady  supply  of 
warm  air  which  is  never  overheated,  and  the  steam  supply 
may  easily  be  turned  on  or  cut  off  from  different  rooms  by 
a  very  simple  mechanism.  As  is  the  case  with  hot- water 
heating,  it  is  possible  to  carry  the  steam  from  a  heating 
plant  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  room  or  building. 
Steam  is  particularly  useful  as  a  heating  medium,  moreover, 
because  it  can  be  supplied  in  so  many  different  ways  for 
various  types  of  direct  and  indirect  heating.  The  disad- 
vantages of  steam  heating  are,  first,  that  it  is  rather  expen- 
sive to  install  and  repair;  second,  changes  must  be  made 
slowly  so  that  if  it  is  necessary  to  turn  on  the  heat  in  a 
building  in  a  short  time  or  to  cool  a  room  rapidly  trouble 
is  usually  experienced;  and  third,  in  cold  weather  it  is  nec- 
essary to  have  fires  going  all  the  time  because  otherwise 
there  is  danger  of  pipes  bursting. 

In  general  it  is  probably  undesirable  to  use  high-pressure 
steam  systems  for  public  schools,  unless  the  heating  plant 
is  in  a  separate  building  from  the  rest  of  the  school.  High- 
pressure  plants  are  much  more  dangerous  than  low-pressure, 
and  not  very  much  more  effective  for  school  purposes. 

Heating  and  ventilating  schemes.  There  are  a  great  many 
different  combinations  of  methods  of  heating  and  ventilating. 


146  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Most  of  these  belong  to  one  of  three  groups.  The  term 
"direct  heating"  is  usually  used  to  mean  heating  by  means 
of  radiators  placed  under  the  windows  or  pipes  run  around 
the  sides  of  the  classrooms.  The  windows  are  the  coldest 
spots  in  the  room.  Cold  enters  around  the  glass  and  radi- 
ates from  the  glass  pane.  When  radiators  or  steam  pipes 
are  placed  directly  below  windows,  they  heat  this  cold 
entering  air  before  it  has  time  to  escape  into  the  rooms. 
Many  school  buildings  and  most  office  buildings  are  heated 
by  the  direct  method  alone. 

Indirect  heating  means  that  air  is  drawn  over  pipes  or 
radiators  and  then  carried  by  flues  to  the  classrooms.  Some- 
times these  pipes  are  in  the  walls  very  near  the  opening  of 
the  inlet,  where  the  air  enters  the  room.  Sometimes  they 
are  placed  in  rooms  in  the  basement  and  warm  the  air  for 
several  classrooms. 

At  one  time  the  indirect  system  was  highly  recommended 
for  heating  schoolhouses,  but  it  was  found  difficult  to  keep 
the  rooms  warm  enough  by  this  method  alone.  Radiators 
were  then  added  underneath  the  windows,  and  the  com- 
bination of  flues  and  radiators  was  described  as  the  direct- 
indirect  method.  This  is  now  one  of  the  commonest  forms 
of  heating  for  larger  school  buildings. 

Flues;  use  of  windows.  The  building  of  the  air  flues  is 
a  matter  over  which  there  is  great  controversy.  For  exam- 
ple, Dr.  Fletcher  B.  Dresslar,  specialist  in  school  hygiene 
and  school  sanitation  for  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, says  that  the  best  position  for  the  inlet  duct  is  about 
eight  feet  from  the  floor,  a  little  back  of  the  middle  of  the 
inside  wall  opposite  the  windows.  On  the  other  hand,  Dr. 
E.  A.  Winslow,  Chairman  of  the  New  York  State  Commis- 
sion on  Ventilation,  suggests  that  it  will  frequently  be  best 
to  take  advantage  of  the  natural  upward  tendency  of  air 
which  is  being  warmed  by  supplying  cool,  fresh  air  below 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  147 

and  removing  the  warm  air  above.  Other  authorities  divide 
about  equally  between  the  two  positions.  In  the  same  way 
very  different  directions  are  given  for  the  size  and  shape  of 
flues;  although  most  of  the  authorities  agree  that  large  flues 
are  more  desirable  than  small  ones,  because  they  make  it 
possible  to  admit  large  quantities  of  air  without  causing 
a  strong  draught.  For  the  school  superintendent  the  wisest 
plan  is  probably  to  secure  the  services  of  the  best  ventilat- 
ing engineer  available,  and  leave  the  question  of  location 
and  size  to  his  judgment. 

In  many  of  our  modern  buildings,  equipped  with  elabo- 
rate heating  systems  and  thermostats,  there  is  an  iron- 
bound  rule  that  no  teacher  shall  open  the  windows  during 
school  hours.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  it  is  a  very  cold 
day  and  the  teacher  throws  open  the  classroom  window  for 
a  minute  or  two  in  order  to  get  a  breath  of  fresh  air.  Power- 
ful fans  downstairs  are  driving  hot  air  into  all  the  rooms 
of  the  building.  When  the  window  is  opened  one  of  several 
things  may  happen.  A  draught  may  be  created,  for  example, 
and  the  stream  of  hot  air  which  is  rushing  up  from  the  fan 
may  be  carried  straight  across  the  classroom  and  out  the 
window.  The  draught  is  so  strong  that  this  room  gets  more 
than  its  share  of  heat  and  the  temperatures  in  other  rooms 
fall.  As  soon  as  the  temperature  falls  the  thermostats  in 
other  classrooms  start  their  mechanism  into  motion,  so  that 
more  steam  is  turned  on  for  all  the  radiators.  Downstairs 
the  fireman  shovels  in  coal  to  generate  more  heat  to  take  the 
place  of  the  huge  volume  of  warm  air  which  is  rushing  out 
through  the  one  teacher's  open  window. 

Or  again,  suppose  that  instead  of  warm  air  going  out 
through  the  window  a  volume  of  cold  air  rushes  in.  The 
teacher  opened  the  window  because  the  room  was  too  warm; 
but,  it  has  not  yet  had  time  to  cool  off.  When  the  cold 
air  strikes  the  thermostat  it  automatically  registers  and 


148  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

acts,  so  that  more  steam  is  turned  on  to  the  radiators.  The 
teacher  now  closes  the  windows,  but  the  radiators  are  work- 
ing even  more  actively  than  before  and  in  a  few  minutes  the 
room  is  intolerably  hot  again.  As  the  heat  increases,  the  ther- 
mostats become  warm  and  the  steam  is  turned  off  from  the 
radiators.  The  teacher,  however,  finding  the  room  quickly 
uncomfortable,  again  throws  the  window  wide  open,  cold 
air  rushes  in,  the  thermostat  becomes  chilled,  the  steam 
heat  is  turned  on  in  the  radiators,  and  the  same  story  is 
repeated  over  and  over.  No  wonder  janitors  object  when 
teachers  open  their  windows  in  buildings  equipped  with  the 
ordinary  type  of  modern  heating  and  ventilating  apparatus. 

Nor  can  one  always  blame  the  teacher  if  she  feels  that  the 
regulation  against  opening  windows  is  a  useless  imposition. 
One  of  the  most  frequent  difficulties  encountered  with 
modern  types  of  artificial  ventilating  apparatus  is  that  the 
heat  supplied  to  all  the  classrooms  is  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture. Classrooms  on  the  north  side  of  the  building,  which 
are  naturally  cold  when  exposed  to  the  wind,  need  more 
heat  than  do  those  on  the  southern  side  of  the  building,  where 
the  sun  pours  into  the  room  all  day  long.  Often  there  is  a 
difference  of  as  much  as  five  or  ten  degrees  between  the  two 
rooms,  but  the  heat  supplied  in  each  case  is  practically  the 
same. 

Contrary  to  the  general  belief,  it  is  possible  to  construct 
buildings  with  modern  apparatus  so  that  the  windows  in 
any  room  may  be  opened  without  interfering  with  the  heat- 
ing and  ventilating  of  other  rooms.  This  is  made  possible 
by  substituting  for  the  old  common-duct  arrangement  either 
the  double-duct  system  or  the  individual-duct  system.  In 
both  these  latter  systems  the  air  for  each  room  is  individu- 
ally regulated  according  to  its  need.  Under  the  ordinary 
system  there  is  a  heating  chamber  in  the  basement  where  all 
the  air  supplied  to  the  building  is  warmed  and  driven  up 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  149 

through  one  huge  duct,  which  has  branches  connecting  with 
each  room.  The  double-duct  system  is  built  on  the  same 
plan,  but  under  every  branch  carrying  warm  air  into  the 
room  there  is  a  second  branch  carrying  cool  air.  At  the  base 
of  each  flue  there  are  dampers,  which  are  connected  with  a 
thermostat.  When  the  temperature  of  the  room  falls,  the 
thermostat  acts  so  that  the  warm-air  damper  is  open  and 
the  cool-air  damper  is  partly  closed.  As  the  room  becomes 
too  hot,  the  warm-air  damper  is  closed  and  the  cool-air 
damper  is  opened.  In  this  way  the  temperature  of  the  air 
admitted  to  each  room  is  regulated  by  the  thermostat  in  the 
room,  and  is  not  affected  in  any  way  by  the  temperature  of 
other  rooms. 

The  most  desirable,  but  also  the  most  expensive,  system 
has  an  individual  duct  for  each  room  leading  directly  to  the 
heating  chamber.  Arrangements  are  made  whereby  cool  air 
and  warm  air  are  each  supplied  to  the  duct,  and  the  propor- 
tion of  each  is  controlled  by  dampers  connected  with  ther- 
mostats in  each  room,  as  is  the  case  with  the  double-duct 
system  just  described. 

It  is  probable  that  in  the  near  future  we  shall  see  many 
and  interesting  experiments  with  new  methods  of  indirect 
heating.  Dr.  Bass,  for  example,  has  made  some  interesting 
experiments  in  Minneapolis,  in  which,  instead  of  having 
large  flues  in  the  walls  of  the  classrooms,  he  has  supplied 
individual  air  inlets  at  each  desk.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
of  our  leading  school  architects  have  come  out  strongly  in 
favor  of  doing  away  with  all  forms  of  indirect  ventilation 
and  depending  solely  on  direct  radiators  and  open  windows. 

Fans.  When  systems  of  indirect  heating  were  first  intro- 
duced, it  was  customary  to  rely  upon  the  difference  in  weight 
between  hot  and  cold  air  to  produce  proper  circulation. 
Later  it  was  found  that  the  so-called  "gravity"  system 
worked  well  only  when  the  difference  between  the  outdoor 


150  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

temperature  and  that  of  the  air  inside  was  very  marked. 
In  spring  and  summer,  when  the  outdoor  temperature  was 
very  mild,  ventilation  inside  the  building  became  increas- 
ingly less  adequate,  and  even  when  windows  were  open, 
very  little  fresh  air  entered,  because  the  pressure  of  the  air 
outside  was  not  heavy  enough  to  force  it  in.  In  order  to 
secure  adequate  circulation  of  air  at  all  times  it  has  recently 
become  the  custom  to  install  fans  which  force  the  air 
through  the  rooms,  regardless  of  its  temperature. 

There  are  two  methods  for  using  fans.  One  method  is  to 
suck  the  foul  air  out  of  the  classroom,  and  thus  create  a 
vacuum  which  fresh  air  rushes  in  to  fill.  This  is  known  as 
the  "exhaust"  method.  The  fan  is  placed  either  in  the  attic 
or  in  the  basement.  The  exhaust  method  was  widely  in 
favor  at  one  time,  but  its  popularity  rapidly  waned.  When 
the  fans  were  placed  in  the  basement,  it  was  found  difficult 
to  make  them  work  properly;  when  placed  in  the  attic,  the 
vibration  of  the  machinery  was  unpleasantly  noticeable. 
Moreover,  it  was  found  that  when  the  foul  air  was  drawn 
out  of  the  classrooms,  its  place  was  taken  not  only  by  fresh 
air  from  windows  and  flues,  but  by  foul  air  from  corridors, 
basements,  and  toilets.  Air  rushed  in  from  all  available 
quarters,  and  it  was  very  difficult  to  regulate  its  quality. 

The  plenum  fan  works  on  exactly  the  opposite  principle. 
Here,  instead  of  drawing  foul  air  away  from  the  classroom, 
fresh  air  is  pumped  into  the  room  and  drives  the  foul  air 
out  through  pressure.  The  plenum  system  makes  it  possi- 
ble to  regulate  the  quantity,  quality,  and  warmth  of  the  air 
supplied  to  each  classroom.  Occasionally  a  combination  of 
plenum  and  exhaust  fans  has  been  used  successfully  in 
school  buildings. 

Plenum  fans  are  usually  located  in  the  basement,  and  air 
intakes  lead  from  outdoors  directly  to  a  large,  enclosed 
chamber.    The  fan  placed  at  the  opening  of  this  chamber 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  151 

draws  the  air  from  it  and  forces  it  up  through  the  various 
ventilating  flues  throughout  the  building.  The  location  of 
the  air  inlet  is  a  matter  of  supreme  importance.  All  too 
frequently  it  is  either  actually  below  the  level  of  the  ground 
outside,  or  else  just  even  with  it.  This  means  that  when  the 
fan  is  working  the  air  which  is  being  drawn  in  from  outdoors 
continually  carries  with  it  small  particles  of  dirt,  and  unless 
there  is  some  form  of  air-cleaning  apparatus,  this  dirt  is 
carried  up  into  the  classrooms  for  children  to  breathe. 

Frequently,  also,  the  air  inlet  is  placed  on  the  north  or 
exposed  side  of  the  building.  Few  people  realize  the  differ- 
ence in  the  temperature  of  air  directly  outside  the  different 
walls  of  a  building.  In  some  cases  it  is  said  that  there  is  as 
much  as  thirty-seven  degrees  Fahrenheit  difference  between 
the  air  on  the  north  and  the  south  sides  of  the  same  building 
in  winter.  During  cold  weather  sometimes  as  much  as  a 
seventh  of  the  entire  fuel  bill  could  be  saved  were  the  air 
inlet  on  the  south  side,  where  the  incoming  air  had  already 
been  warmed  by  the  sun.  In  planning  the  air  inlet,  then, 
care  should  be  taken  to  place  it  high  on  the  school  wall  on 
the  southern  side  of  the  building.  The  air  chamber  should 
be  kept  clean  and  empty.  It  should  never  be  used  for  stor- 
age. The  fan  should  be  enclosed  in  a  fan  chamber.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  school  fans,  placed  on  the  floor  of  the 
basement  near  the  boilers,  energetically  pumping  basement 
air  into  the  classrooms. 

Recently  a  distinctly  new  method  has  been  used  for 
school  ventilation  by  means  of  fans.  Instead  of  installing 
one  large  fan  in  the  basement  to  supply  air  for  all  parts  of 
the  building,  a  small  electric  fan  is  placed  in  every  classroom. 
This  fan  either  draws  warmed  air  up  from  the  basement  air 
chamber  or  cold  air  directly  from  outdoors,  depending  upon 
the  way  in  which  it  is  installed;  and  the  air  supply  for  each 
classroom  may  be  controlled  without  affecting  that  of  any 


152  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

other.  The  fans  are  practically  noiseless;  and  may  be  run 
without  causing  unpleasant  draughts  or  interfering  with 
classroom  work. 

Air  cleaning.  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the 
danger  of  locating  the  air  inlet  near  the  ground,  because  it 
picks  up  dirt  and  spreads  it  by  means  of  the  fan  throughout 
the  building.  Even  where  the  intake  is  located  high  upon 
the  wall  the  air  frequently  is  found  to  be  very  dirty.  This  is 
particularly  true  in  smoky  cities,  or  in  communities  where 
the  ground  is  dry  and  dusty.  Our  better  school  buildings 
are  now  installing  apparatus  whereby  air  taken  into  the 
building  can  be  strained  and  cleaned  of  all  the  dirt  it  carried 
before  it  is  sent  into  the  rest  of  the  building.  This  cleaning  is 
either  done  by  forcing  the  air  to  pass  through  cheesecloth 
bags,  or  similar  dry  strainers,  or  else  by  causing  it  to  pass 
through  streams  of  water  which  literally  wash  the  dirt  out. 

Air-moisteners.  If  recent  experiments  furnish  reliable 
evidence,  it  seems  to  be  true  that  it  is  even  more  important 
to  have  the  air  moist  than  it  is  to  have  it  clean.  The  problem 
of  moistening  air  is  a  most  perplexing  one,  and  does  not 
seem  as  yet  to  have  been  satisfactorily  solved.  Many  differ- 
ent forms  of  apparatus  have  been  devised,  most  of  which 
are  easy  to  install  and  simple  of  operation.  The  greatest 
difficulty  encountered  is  that  most  of  the  successful  air- 
moisteners  are  costly  to  run.  Apparently  the  most  success- 
ful and  also  the  most  expensive  types  are  those  which  utilize 
the  steam  spray.  Steam  from  the  boilers  is  allowed  to  mix 
with  the  air  which  is  being  blown  into  the  room  by  the  fan. 
Although  at  times  people  complain  that  the  air  so  mixed 
carries  with  it  an  unpleasant  odor,  it  seems  entirely  possible 
to  remedy  the  defect.  The  chief  trouble  with  the  system  is 
that  large  amounts  of  steam  are  necessary  in  order  ade- 
quately to  moisten  the  air.  This  air  is  carried  into  the  school- 
rooms at  high  rates  of  speed,  and  is  immediately  forced  out 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  153 

through  the  foul-air  flues  into  the  outside  air  in  order  to 
make  room  for  the  large  volumes  of  heated  air  which  follow 
it.  This  means  that  the  steam  from  the  boilers  is  being  con- 
stantly used  up,  and  the  fuel  cost  for  doing  this  is  very 
heavy. 

There  are  many  other  forms  of  air-moisteners.  For  exam- 
ple, sometimes  tanks  of  water  are  placed  underneath  the 
fan.  Again,  the  air  is  forced  through  streams  of  water,  which 
moisten  and  wash  it  at  the  same  time.  Sometimes  sheets  of 
porous  cloth  are  kept  constantly  wet  by  sprays  of  water 
and  the  air  is  forced  through  them.  These  devices  work 
with  varying  degrees  of  success.  Usually  it  is  necessary  to 
combine  the  water  with  the  steam,  or  to  provide  hot  pipes 
which  raise  the  temperature  of  the  water.  The  chief  diffi- 
culty encountered  is  to  make  the  air  take  up  moisture  fast 
enough  as  it  passes  up  into  the  room. 

Thermometers.  Every  classroom  in  the  country  should 
be  supplied  with  a  thermometer.  Every  teacher  and  every 
child  should  be  taught  how  to  read  it,  and  what  to  think 
about  the  results  it  shows.  The  thermometer  should  be  of 
large  size  and  of  good  make.  Small  thermometers  are  diffi- 
cult to  read  and  frequently  get  out  of  order.  In  placing  the 
thermometer  care  should  be  taken  not  to  place  it  too  near 
the  window,  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  too  near  radiators  or 
fresh-air  inlets.  Probably  the  fairest  place  in  the  room  for 
hanging  a  thermometer  is  in  the  exact  center,  halfway 
between  floor  and  ceiling.  If  it  must  hang  on  the  walls  the 
teacher  should  experiment  to  find  out  which  particular 
location  will  most  accurately  record  the  average  temper- 
ature of  the  room. 

Thermograph.  Better  than  a  thermometer  is  the  ther- 
mograph, which  not  only  shows  the  degrees  of  heat  in  the 
room,  but  also  registers  the  findings  in  the  office  of  janitor 
or  principal.   It  is  strongly  desirable  that  the  janitor  should 


154  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

be  able  to  tell  the  condition  of  heat  in  each  of  the  classrooms 
without  having  to  make  a  personal  visit.  Thermographs 
can  be  installed  at  moderately  low  cost,  and  will  be  of 
immense  help  to  the  janitor. 

Thermostats.  The  thermostat  is  an  instrument  which 
is  installed  in  each  room,  and  is  so  arranged  that  it  auto- 
matically regulates  the  supply  of  steam  to  the  radiators  in 
that  room.  It  regulates  heat,  not  ventilation.  Complaints 
are  constantly  made  that  thermostats  get  out  of  order. 
Where  buildings  are  properly  constructed,  however,  with 
the  double  or  individual  system  of  fresh-air  flues,  thermo- 
stats render  excellent  service.  They  take  responsibility  for 
heating  classrooms  from  the  shoulders  of  both  teacher  and 
janitor  and  make  it  an  automatic  matter. 

Humidostats.  The  humidostat  is  similar  in  principle  to 
the  thermostat,  except  for  the  fact  that  it  registers  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  air  rather  than  the  temperature. 
When  the  classroom  air  becomes  too  dry,  the  humidostat 
automatically  turns  more  steam  into  the  fresh-air  flue. 
When  the  moisture  becomes  too  great,  the  heat  is  auto- 
matically turned  off  again.  As  yet  humidostats  are  rarely 
found  in  public  school  buildings,  but  it  is  probably  true  that, 
as  the  importance  of  securing  the  proper  degree  of  humid- 
ity is  recognized  by  ventilating  authorities,  the  humidostat 
will  take  its  place  beside  the  thermostat  as  an  important 
and  necessary  part  of  school  equipment. 

Re-circulation.  Probably  the  most  significant  of  all  the 
recent  experiments  in  ventilating  and  heating  problems  are 
those  already  mentioned  which  were  carried  on  by  Dr. 
McCurdy  in  his  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  gymnasium, 
and  by  Dr.  Bass  in  a  public  school  in  Minneapolis.  Both  of 
these  gentlemen  investigated  physiological  and  psycholog- 
ical results  of  re-circulating  air.  The  results  of  these  experi- 
ments in  re-circulation  seem  to  show  that  if  air  is  properly 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  155 

washed,  moistened,  and  kept  in  motion,  it  can  be  used  over 
and  over  again  with  amazingly  satisfactory  results.  It  seems 
possible  to  eliminate  all  objectionable  odors.  The  air  seems 
fresh  and  clean  throughout  the  building,  and  students 
working  in  rooms  where  re-circulation  is  used  frequently 
say  that  they  prefer  that  atmosphere  to  that  found  in 
buildings  where  the  air  is  supplied  fresh  from  the  outside. 
Careful  psychological  tests  all  give  the  same  evidence,  that 
students  working  in  re-circulated  air  do  exactly  as  good 
work  and  as  much  of  it  as  students  working  in  fresh-air 
rooms. 

There  is,  however,  one  important  point  on  which  evidence 
has  not  yet  been  made  public.  The  New  York  Ventilation 
Commission  has  recently  discovered  that  where  air  is  kept 
cool,  moist,  and  in  motion  in  experimental  chambers,  the 
amount  of  carbon  dioxide  and  other  gases  present  seems 
to  have  no  measurable  effect  either  upon  physiological  or 
psychological  responses.  Only  one  important  effect  of  foul 
air  has  been  discovered,  but  that  is  an  extremely  significant 
one.  The  commission  has  succeeded  in  demonstrating  so 
clearly  that  it  cannot  be  successfully  controverted  that 
foul  air  tends  to  diminish  appetite,  and  that  the  amount  of 
food  consumed  each  day  by  students  in  fresh-air  chambers 
is  materially  greater  than  that  consumed  by  students  in 
foul-air  chambers.  Results  of  this  study  at  once  raise  a  most 
important  question  with  regard  to  the  plan  for  re-circulating 
air  in  buildings.  Does  washing  foul  air  remove  its  appetite- 
destroying  properties?  Does  mixing  ozone  with  foul  air 
have  any  such  effect  upon  it?  If  it  can  be  successfully 
demonstrated  that  re-circulation  has  no  undesirable  effect 
upon  appetite,  it  will  probably  mean  that  most  of  our  large 
public  buildings,  including  school  buildings,  of  the  future 
will  be  built  so  that  re-circulation  is  possible. 

Re-circulation  provides  exceedingly  clean  air  to  the  class- 


156  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

room  because  it  is  washed  on  every  round,  and  whatever 
dust  escapes  the  first  washing  is  sure  to  be  caught  in  the 
second.  Air-moistening  is  accomplished  with  very  small 
expense  because  very  little  heat  and  moisture  are  lost  in  the 
process.  The  chief  saving,  however,  —  and  it  is  an  enormous 
saving,  —  comes  in  the  amount  of  fuel  necessary  to  heat 
the  building.  Since  most  of  the  air  is  kept  in  the  building 
there  is  very  little  loss  of  heat.  The  desirable  elements  of 
re-circulation  are  so  large  and  the  undesirable  elements  so 
few  that  further  experiments  concerning  the  effects  of  re- 
circulation upon  appetite  seem  of  paramount  importance. 
If  re- circulated  air  can  be  shown  to  have  no  undesirable 
effect  upon  appetite,  it  will  be  difficult  not  to  agree  with 
Dr.  Gulick  when  he  calls  re-circulation  "the  ideal  ventila- 
tion for  school  buildings." 

What  shall  schoolmen  do?  After  studying  carefully  all 
the  articles  and  books  which  have  been  written  on  the 
subject  of  heating  and  ventilating,  superintendents  and 
members  of  school  boards  find  themselves  in  a  curiously  un- 
satisfactory position.  They  read  of  many  interesting  ex- 
periments. They  learn  that  most  of  the  old  theories  of  ven- 
tilation have  been  proved  false.  They  learn  of  many  new 
principles  which  apparently  are  in  the  process  of  being 
established.  But  when  the  town  has  to  build  a  new  school 
building,  to  be  ready  for  occupancy  within  a  year,  the 
question  of  what  is  the  most  satisfactory  type  of  heating  and 
ventilating  apparatus  to  install  is  apt  to  meet  with  a  very 
indefinite  and  unsatisfactory  answer.  One  architect  says 
dispense  with  all  artificial  ventilation,  rely  simply  on  direct 
heating  by  radiators,  and  open  the  windows.  Another  goes 
to  the  opposite  extreme  and  recommends  the  most  com- 
plicated system  of  fans,  strainers,  and  moisteners.  A  few 
of  the  most  enthusiastic  engineers  believe  that  re-circula- 
tion solves  the  problem,   and  strongly  recommend   that 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  157 

a  re-circulation  system  be  established  in  all  new  school 
buildings. 

For  superintendents  and  school  board  members  who  are 
actually  facing  the  problem  of  erecting  new  buildings  within 
the  coming  year,  and  who  cannot  wait  to  find  out  what  con- 
clusions are  eventually  to  be  reached  by  experts,  we  suggest 
the  following  plan :  — 

First,  employ  not  only  a  competent  architect,  but  a 
competent  heating  and  ventilating  engineer,  and  if  possi- 
ble have  the  two  men  work  together  in  devising  their  plans 
for  the  buildings. 

Second,  ask  the  engineer  if  it  is  not  possible  to  construct 
the  building  in  such  a  way  that  one  of  several  different  plans 
of  ventilation  might  be  used.  For  example,  if  the  building 
is  piped  throughout,  direct  ventilation  might  be  used  with 
window  ventilation.  Inlet  and  outlet  flues  could  be  placed 
in  the  walls,  as  is  usual  with  indirect  heating  and  ventilating, 
and  space  could  be  left  in  the  basement  where  a  fan  might 
be  installed.  At  the  same  time  the  building  could  be  so 
constructed  that  outside  air  could  be  shut  out  and  the  air 
of  the  building  re-circulated.  In  a  building  erected  in  such 
a  way  it  would  be  possible  to  shift,  with  minor  changes, 
from  one  system  of  heating  and  ventilating  to  another,  de- 
pending upon  the  findings  of  those  who  are  now  experiment- 
ing with  the  subject. 

It  is  probably  true  that  new  buildings  are  not  being 
planned  in  this  way,  but  it  is  also  true  that  the  skillful 
heating  engineer,  working  in  cooperation  with  a  competent 
school  architect,  could  devise  a  system  which  could  be 
readily  adapted  to  meet  changes  in  theory.  Many  of  our 
newest  and  finest  buildings  are  being  constructed  of  steel 
and  cement  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  be  expected  to 
be  standing  and  in  good  condition  after  perhaps  a  hundred 
years  of  service.   Even  the  buildings  which  are  not  of  mono- 


158  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

lithic  construction  are  expected  to  last  for  twenty  or  thirty 
years  at  least,  and  we  may  be  sure  that  within  this  time 
methods  of  heating  and  ventilating  will  be  radically  im- 
proved. Anything  which  can  be  done  to  forecast  possible 
changes  and  construct  buildings  so  that  they  may  easily 
be  made  when  the  time  comes,  will  be  a  wise  investment  of 
time  and  money. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  In  certain  schools  steam  cocks  on  radiators  are  left  open,  pans  of 
water  are  placed  on  radiators,  or  water  tanks  are  attached  to  stove 
or  furnace.  How  valuable  are  such  devices  for  humidifying  the  air? 
If  a  water  pan  is  provided  in  the  classroom,  why  is  it  that  children's 
faces  may  become  flushed  and  dry  before  the  water  has  been  notice- 
ably evaporated? 

2.  Why  is  it  that  damp  air  seems  hotter  than  dry  in  summer  and  colder 
than  dry  in  winter? 

3.  If  suffocation  is  really  caused  by  inability  of  the  body  to  throw  off 
heat,  why  are  people  able  to  lie  comfortably  completely  immersed  in 
water  of  a  hot  bath  for  many  minutes  at  a  time? 

4.  What,  if  any,  changes  would  have  to  be  made  in  the  laws  of  your 
State  to  permit  an  ideal  system  of  ventilation  to  be  installed  in  a 
school  building? 

5.  What  are  the  comparative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  dif- 
ferent types  of  steam  boilers  now  commonly  used? 

6.  Make  a  special  study  of  ventilating  flues,  noting  number,  size,  loca- 
tion, equalizing  chambers,  automatic  control,  legal  provisions,  costs, 
etc.   What  are  your  conclusions  as  to  the  most  desirable  type? 

7.  Outline  a  course  of  study  of  ventilation  for  janitors.  What  should 
teachers  know  about  the  subject? 

8.  Make  a  schedule  for  a  heating  and  ventilating  survey  6f  a  school 
system. 

9.  The  theory  of  re-circulation  has  ardent  advocates  and  bitter  opponents. 
If  it  can  be  proved  desirable  it  will  effect  amazing  changes  in  school 
practice.  On  the  basis  of  all  the  evidence  you  can  gather,  what  are 
your  own  conclusions? 

SELECTED   REFERENCES 

International  Y.M.C.A.  College,  Springfield,  Massachusetts.    Ventilation 
Studies.    Reprinted  from  the  American  Physical  Education  Review, 
December,  1913. 
Authoritative  account  of  re-circulation  experiments  at  Springfield,  with  bibliography. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATING  159 

New  York  State  Commission  on  Ventilation,  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York. 

See  various  papers  and  reports  published  from  time  to  time  by  members  of  the  Com- 
mission. 

Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry.  Files  and  current  numbers, 
especially  that  for  March,  1914. 

Thorndike,  Edward  L.,  Ruger,  G.  J.,  and  McCall,  W.  A.:  "Effects  of  Out- 
side Air  and  Re-circulated  Air  upon  Intellectual  Achievement  and 
Improvement";  in  School  and  Society,  May  G,  1916. 

The  printed  material  on  this  subject  is  enormous  in  amount,  and  even 
a  carefully  selected  list  of  the  most  important  references  would  be  too 
long  to  include  here.  The  student  is  urged  to  look  through  the  files 
of  the  heating  and  ventilating  journals,  and  to  refer  to  the  card  in- 
dexes at  public  libraries  under  the  headings  of  heating,  ventilating, 
air,  atmosphere,  etc. 


CHAPTER  IX 

PROTECTING  SCHOOLHOUSES  FROM  FIRE 

Fire  protection  unpopular.  Fire  protection  is  a  distinctly 
unpopular  subject.  Most  people  are  naturally  optimistic. 
They  do  not  like  to  believe  that  danger  threatens,  and  they 
would  rather  take  chances  than  spend  time  and  money 
for  various  forms  of  insurance.  In  the  United  States  as  a 
whole  at  least  one  school  is  burned  or  partially  destroyed 
by  fire  every  school  day  in  the  year.  But  as  most  school - 
houses  are  only  open  five  hours  a  day  and  five  days  a 
week,  most  of  these  fires  occur  when  schools  are  not  in  ses- 
sion, and  therefore  very  few  school  children  are  burned  to 
death. 

Occasionally,  however,  a  terrible  tragedy  occurs;  the 
communities  which  have  followed  the  policy  of  taking 
chances  are  shocked  out  of  their  previous  indifference,  and 
for  a  few  brief  months  undertake  drastic  reforms  in  the 
building  of  their  schoolhouses.  The  burning  of  the  Lake 
View  School  at  Collinwood,  just  outside  of  Cleveland,  on 
March  4,  1908,  was  directly  responsible  for  placing  Ohio 
at  the  head  of  all  the  States  of  the  Union  so  far  as  concerns 
fire  protection  legislation.  The  recent  tragedy  at  Peabody, 
Massachusetts,  aroused  waves  of  popular  agitation  in  the 
New  England  press,  but  neither  Collinwood  nor  Peabody 
nor  the  other  lesser  tragedies  has  any  great  permanent 
effect  on  the  popular  attitude  toward  fire  protection.  Safe- 
guarding public  buildings  is  an  expensive  process.  School 
boards  are  beset  on  every  side  with  applications  for  in- 
creased funds.  Building  costs  already  seem  prohibitive,  and 
the  addition  of  thousands  of  dollars  to  secure  prevention 


PROTECTING  SCHOOLHOUSES  FRCM  FIRE      1C1 

against  loss  of  life  which  in  all  probability  will  not  occur 
seems  almost  an  official  extravagance. 

Fire-retarding.  If  there  is  not  sufficient  money  to  erect 
a  completely  fireproof  building,  slow  burning  or  fire-retard- 
ing buildings  may  be  erected  which  will,  at  Least,  give  the 
children  sufficient  time  to  escape.  Corridors  and  stairs  may 
be  made  of  fireproof  material,  and  cut  off  from  the  rest  of 
the  building  by  fireproof  walls.  Throughout  the  building, 
wherever  possible,  metal  furring  or  tiled  linings  should  be 
used.  Where  wood  furring  is  necessary,  it  should  be  stopped 
off  by  plaster  at  the  floor  and  ceiling  and  midway  between. 
Even  metal  furring  should  be  fire-stopped,  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  fire  by  draughts  of  superheated  air  or  flaming 
gases.  In  some  of  the  earlier  forms  of  construction  the 
hollow  spaces  between  inner  and  outer  walls  furnished  flues 
whereby  draughts  might  draw  the  flames  from  basement 
to  attic.  Again,  the  semi -fireproof  building  should  avoid 
all  unnecessary  wood.  The  old  plan,  once  so  popular,  of 
covering  the  walls  with  sheaths  of  wood  should  be  dis- 
carded. Instead,  a  very  satisfactory  corridor  covering  is 
made  by  hard  plaster  painted,  or  with  burlap  pasted  upon 
it.  Wooden  cornices,  picture  rails,  door  trims,  and  the  like, 
should  all  be  avoided,  because  they  not  only  give  extra 
places  in  which  dust  may  gather,  but  they  provide  fuel  for 
possible  flames. 

Attics.  Most  modern  school  buildings  are  built  with  flat 
roofs.  From  a  fire-protection  point  of  view  this  is  far  more 
desirable  than  the  old-fashioned  pitched  roof.  The  latter 
usually  extends  over  the  entire  space  of  the  school  building. 
It  is  large  and  low.  Unprotected  wooden  beams  are  near 
to  the  floor.  Piles  of  old  furniture,  paper,  records,  and  the 
like,  are  piled  together  in  loose  heaps.  A  window  is  usually 
placed  at  either  end,  and  long  distances  stretch  between, 
unbroken  by  walls  or  partitions.    In  case  of  fire  the  large 


162  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

attic  furnishes  a  flue  through  which  a  draught  carries  the 
flames  up  through  the  walls  toward  the  top  of  the  building. 

In  buildings  already  equipped  with  large,  unbroken  attics, 
one  or  more  vertical  partitions  should  be  erected  in  order 
to  cut  off  the  draught.  Stringent  orders  should  be  given  that 
no  furniture  or  paper  of  any  kind  is  to  be  stored  in  the  attic. 
No  classes  should  be  held  there,  and  the  door  leading  to  the 
attic  stairs  should  be  permanently  locked.  The  roof  cover- 
ing should  be  of  tile  or  slate,  embedded  in  a  suitable  roofing 
composition.  After  this  in  order  of  preference  comes  metal 
roofing  over  heavy  asbestos  paper,  or  composition  gravel 
or  slag.  Wooden  shingles  should  never  be  used  on  any 
school  buildings. 

Corridors.  In  the  semi-fireproof  building,  stairs  and  cor- 
ridors should  be  made  of  fireproof  material  and  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  building  by  fireproof  walls  and  doors. 
In  buildings  containing  over  six  classrooms,  stairs  should 
be  placed  at  the  extreme  opposite  ends  of  the  building,  and 
one  or  more  fire  partitions  erected  on  each  floor  between 
them,  so  that  in  times  of  fire  the  doors  may  be  automatically 
closed  and  the  stairways  completely  separated  one  from  the 
other.  These  partitions  should  usually  be  made  of  wire  glass 
with  self-closing  doors  held  open  by  fusible  hooks,  that  is, 
hooks  which  are  held  by  metal  links.  These  links  melt  at 
about  one  hundred  and  thirty  degrees  Fahrenheit  and  re- 
lease the  hook  and  door  to  which  it  is  attached.  If  the  cor- 
ridor is  otherwise  well  lighted,  masonry  or  wood  sheathed 
with  metal  may  be  used  as  a  partition,  but  wire  glass  admits 
light  and  yet  is  unbreakable  during  fire.  If  the  windows  of 
the  corridors  are  within  thirty  feet  of  any  adjacent  build- 
ing, they  too  should  be  made  of  wire  glass,  so  that  in  case 
of  fire  from  without  the  windows  will  withstand  the  heat 
and  flames. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  all  corridors  free  of  obstruc- 


PROTECTING  SCHOOLHOUSES  FROM  FIRE      163 

tion.  Lockers,  pieces  of  statuary,  drinking-fountains,  and 
the  like,  if  used  at  all  should  be  placed  in  recesses,  where 
they  will  not  interfere  with  free  passage  along  the  corridor. 
It  is  usually  the  better  plan  to  place  all  decorations  in  the 
corridors  above  the  heads  of  the  children  along  the  walls. 
Bas-reliefs,  framed  pictures,  and  mural  decorations  art-  more 
desirable  than  large  statues. 

Assembly  rooms.  All  assembly  rooms  should  be  built  on 
the  ground  floor  and  provided  with  separate  exits,  which 
lead  directly  to  the  open  air.  In  old  buildings,  where  the 
assembly  hall  is  in  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  story,  at 
least  two  fire  escapes  should  be  erected  leading  from  the 
assembly  room,  but  placed  as  far  apart  as  possible.  These 
fire  escapes  preferably  should  be  of  regular  stair  form,  fol- 
lowing all  the  rules  for  school  stairways,  and  enclosed  in  fire- 
proof towers.  It  should  be  possible  to  empty  the  assembly 
hall  in  two  minutes,  without  having  the  occupants  pass 
through  other  parts  of  the  building. 

Doors.  Doors  of  auditoriums,  classrooms,  vestibules,  and 
the  like,  should  invariably  swing  in  the  direction  of  out- 
going classes.  In  case  of  panic,  where  doors  are  hung  to 
swing  inward,  the  crush  of  persons  trying  to  escape  may 
frequently  jam  the  door  so  that  it  cannot  be  opened.  Doors 
which  swing  outward  usually  give  way  quickly  under  pres- 
sure. If  supplied  with  "panic-bolts,"  as  should  be  done  in 
the  case  of  all  outer  doors,  the  heavier  the  pressure  the  surer 
they  are  to  open. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  fire  protection  the  common 
method  of  designing  wardrobes,  with  one  door  opening  into 
classrooms  and  the  other  into  the  main  hallway,  is  open 
to  rather  serious  objection.  It  is  said  that  in  the  case  of 
the  Collinwood  fire  the  children  became  panic-stricken,  and 
when  teachers  sought  to  prevent  them  from  going  into  the 
blazing  hallways  by  guarding  the  main  classroom  door,  the 


164  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

children  escaped  from  their  control  by  dashing  through 
the  wardrobes.  There  should  be  only  one  door  by  which 
pupils  may  pass  from  classroom  to  corridor.  In  buildings 
which  are  not  completely  fireproof  there  should  also  be 
direct  access  to  fire  escapes  from  every  classroom. 

Stairs.  Every  non-fireproof  school  building  of  over  six 
classrooms  should  be  provided  with  at  least  two  stairways, 
situated  at  the  extreme  opposite  ends  of  the  building.  Addi- 
tional stairways  should  be  provided  as  the  number  of  class- 
rooms is  increased.  These  stairways  should  lead  from  the 
top  of  the  building  to  the  first  floor,  and  should  open  di- 
rectly to  the  outer  air.  They  should  never  be  built  to  dis- 
charge into  the  main  corridor.  Stairs  should  be  built  of 
fireproof  material,  such  as  metal  or  concrete.  Marble,  slate, 
or  tile  treads  crack  when  too  hot,  and  should  never  be  used 
for  stairs  unless  completely  supported  underneath  by  metal 
framework.  Wooden  stairs  supported  by  metal  should 
never  be  used  because  they  are  not  fireproof.  The  stairs 
should  be  completely  enclosed  by  fireproof  walls  of  such 
materials  as  metal,  concrete,  or  wire  glass.  Stairway  doors, 
like  corridor  fire  stops  should  be  made  of  metal  and  wire  glass 
and  held  open  by  fusible  hooks.  In  case  of  fire  the  links  hold- 
ing these  hooks  melt  and  allow  the  doors  to  close,  thereby 
isolating  the  stairway  from  flames.  Windows  lighting  the 
stairways  within  thirty  feet  of  adjacent  buildings  should  be 
made  of  wire  glass. 

Width  and  handrails.  The  stairs  should  not  be  less  than 
four  feet  nor  more  than  five  feet  in  width  between  strings. 
The  four-foot  width  for  elementary  schools  is  preferable. 
Width  is  fixed  at  four  feet  to  prevent  a  third  line  of  pupils 
going  down  the  center  without  handrail  supports.  Hand- 
rails should  be  provided  on  each  side  of  the  stairs,  and 
should  be  continuous  on  landings  as  well  as  on  the  stair 
proper.   In  old  buildings,  where  the  main  stairways  are  very 


Fig.  18.  Fire  Dangers  which  need  Attention 

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(6)  A  fire  trap  of  a  stairway 


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PROTECTING  SCHOOLHOUSES  FROM  FIRE      165 

wide,  handrails  should  be  inserted  flown  the  middle  of  the 
stairs.  Wedge-shaped  steps  or  winding  stairs  arc  extremely 
dangerous,  and  should  never  be  used  in  the  const  nut  ion  of 
stairways.  In  old  buildings,  winding  steps  may  sometimes 
be  replaced  by  platforms.  If  the  winding  stairway  is  over 
four  feet  wide,  it  may  be  rendered  somewhat  safer  by  mov- 
ing the  inner  handrail  several  inches  toward  the  outside,  so 
that  the  part  of  the  winder  near  the  inner  rail  is  at  least  as 
wide  as  a  child's  foot.  This  is  only  a  makeshift,  however, 
and  should  never  be  used  unless  other  remedies  have  been 
proved  impossible.  Wedge-shaped  stairs  are  perilous  at  any 
time,  and  during  a  panic  they  are  almost  sure  to  lead  to 
serious  accidents. 

Landings.  There  should  be  at  least  one  landing  between 
floors,  and  at  least  three  steps  must  intervene  between 
landings.  Where  only  one  or  two  steps  are  provided,  if  the 
stairways  are  poorly  lighted  and  the  pupils  are  in  a  hurry, 
there  is  danger  that  they  may  fail  to  see  the  steps  and  may 
thereby  be  caused  to  stumble.  Landings  on  stairways  should 
be  shallow,  and  provided  with  rounded  corners.  In  old 
buildings,  where  the  corners  of  the  landings  are  square, 
there  is  danger  that  if  a  panic  occurs  the  weaker  children 
will  be  pushed  into  corners  by  older  and  stronger  children, 
instead  of  being  carried  along  with  the  crowd  down  the  stair- 
way. Square  corners  may  be  rendered  safe  by  placing  two 
wooden  bars  across  them,  parallel  with  the  floor  and  about 
two  and  four  feet  above  it.  The  stair  landing  is  frequently 
clearly  visible  from  the  main  corridor,  and  it  has  become 
the  habit  of  many  school  authorities  to  place  pots  of  flowers, 
ferns,  or  pieces  of  statuary  on  the  main  landing,  so  that  they 
may  be  seen  by  the  entering  visitor.  The  artistic  effect  is 
frequently  undeniably  good,  but  unless  these  ornaments  are 
set  in  recesses  especially  prepared  for  them,  they  place  ob- 
stacles in  the  path  of  descending  children.    Every  school 


166  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

principal  should  remember  "that  obstructions  cause  de- 
lays, delays  cost  lives." 

The  stairways  of  old  buildings  are  frequently  their  most 
dangerous  features  and  also  offer  the  most  perplexing  prob- 
lem for  reconstruction.  Wherever  possible  they  should  be 
rebuilt  of  fire-proof  material  and  isolated  from  the  rest 
of  the  building  by  fire-proof  walls  and  doors,  as  has  just 
been  described.  Where  this  is  out  of  the  question,  fireproof 
partitions  should  be  erected  across  the  corridors  so  as  to  cut 
off  draughts,  and  commodious  outside  fire  escapes  should  be 
provided  in  the  metal  stair  or  tower  form.  In  buildings  of 
the  Collinwood  type,  where  a  large  open  hall  extends  through 
the  center  of  the  building  from  the  first  to  the  top  floor,  it 
is  practicably  impossible  either  to  remodel  stairways  or  to 
cut  off  draughts.  In  such  cases  ample  fire  escapes  should 
be  provided  at  once,  careful  fire  drills  should  bd  instituted, 
and  the  school  board  should  plan  to  tear  down  the  building 
at  the  earliest  possible  date. 

Exits.  Stairs  should  lead  directly  to  the  outer  exit,  and 
the  arrangements  should  be  such  that  a  line  passing  directly 
down  the  center  of  the  stairway  may  be  projected  directly 
through  the  middle  point  between  the  two  door  posts. 
Wliere  children  have  to  turn  just  before  reaching  the  door- 
way, their  speed  of  exit  is  considerably  retarded. 

The  floor  of  the  landing  at  the  foot  of  the  stairway  should 
be  on  the  same  level  as  the  floor  of  the  outer  vestibule.  The 
one  or  two  steps  frequently  placed  here  cause  stumbling. 
If  the  platform  at  the  entrance  is  at  some  distance  from  the 
ground,  outside  stairways  should  be  provided  with  fairly 
wide  platforms;  that  is,  fully  as  wide  as  the  width  of  each 
door  outside  the  vestibule.  Stairways  in  the  vestibule  or 
leading  from  the  vestibule  to  the  ground  should  be  the  entire 
width  of  the  vestibule.  In  old-fashioned  buildings  space  is 
frequently  left  at  the  side  of  the  doorway,  and  a  corner 


PROTECTING  SCHOOLHOUSES  FROM  FIRE       1G7 

formed  into  which  children  may  be  shoved  by  their  stronger 
companions.  Where  doors  are  so  arranged  the  dangerous 
corners  should  be  cut  off  by  bars  of  wood  placed  across  them, 

as  was  suggested  in  the  paragraph  dealing  with  stair  landing. 
The  matter  of  cutting  off  corners  is  of  greater  importance 
than  would  at  first  appear.  In  the  case  of  the  Collin  wood  lire 
it  will  be  remembered  that  the  main  entrance  was  to  the 
left  of  the  stairway  instead  of  being  immediately  in  front  of 
it.  Blank  walls  about  two  feet  deep  extended  from  each  side 
of  the  doorway.    When  the  alarm  of  fire  was  given,  children 
on  the  first  floor  escaped,  but  some  of  them,  eluding  the  con- 
trol of  their  teachers,  dashed  back  into  the  burning  building 
in  the  hope  of  getting  their  coats  and  hats,  which  hail  been 
left  in  the  wardrobe.     As  these  primary  children  tried  to 
hurry  up  the  first  flight  of  stairs  they  were  met  by  descend- 
ing groups  of  panic-stricken  older  children.    Several  of  the 
smaller  ones  lost  their  footing  and  fell  at  the  bottom  of 
the  stairway.    They  became  crushed  into  the  corners  and 
against  the  walls,  and  their  bodies  formed  a  barricade  over 
which  other  children  tried  to*climb.    It  is  said  that  even 
after  the  vestibule  doors  were  forced  open,  the  bodies  of 
the  children  behind  the  main  partition  were  jammed  to- 
gether one  on  top  of  the  other  so  tightly  that  it  was  impos- 
sible to  extricate  them.    It  was  at  the  foot  of  this  stairway 
behind  the  vestibule  partition  where  most  of  the  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-eight  children  and  two  teachers  lost  their 
lives.    In  Cleveland,  the  city  nearest  to  the  Collinwood  dis- 
aster, the  danger  of  unprotected  square  corners  has  been 
so  strongly  realized  that  in  practically  every  old-fashioned 
school  where  square  corners  still  remain  wooden  bars  have 
been  nailed  across  them  in  the  manner  just  described,  form- 
ing an  inexpensive  but  effective  protection  against  a  repe- 
tition of  the  Collinwood  disaster. 
•    Railroad  doors.    The  up-to-date  school  architect  provides 


168  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

his  building  with  what  are  known  as  "railroad  doors";  that 
is,  single  doors  set  side  by  side  in  separate  frames.  They 
are  called  railroad  doors  because  they  were  introduced  by 
large  railroads  in  building  their  stations,  where  it  was  found 
that  the  old-fashioned  double  doors  were  inefficient  and 
retarded  egress.  Double  doors  should  never  be  placed  in 
new  school  buildings.  In  old  buildings  they  should  be  ar- 
ranged to  swing  outward,  and  should  be  provided  on  each 
side  with  panic  bolts  or  bars.  The  commonest  form  of  self- 
releasing  device  is  a  bar  which  extends  across  the  entire 
width  of  each  door.  When  pressure  of  any  kind  is  exerted 
upon  the  bar,  it  automatically  draws  the  bolt  from  top  and 
bottom  and  allows  the  door  to  swing  outward.  This  is  com- 
monly known  as  a  "panic  bolt."  It  is  not  sufficient  to  pro- 
vide one  half  of  a  double  door  with  this  panic  bolt  unless 
the  other  half  is  so  arranged  that  it  will  immediately  swing 
open  as  soon  as  the  first  half  is  released.  It  should  be  im- 
possible to  open  only  one  half  of  a  double  door  and  leave  the 
other  half  closed.  The  old  method  of  keeping  one  half  of 
the  door  bolted  to  the  doorsill  adds  several  feet  to  the  width 
of  a  dangerous  corner,  and  diminishes  the  exit  space  by  half. 
Reliance  should  not  be  placed  on  the  single  bolt  which 
turns  by  hand  and  draws  top  and  bottom  bolts.  When  chil- 
dren are  frightened  they  usually  cannot  manage  any  but 
the  most  simple  mechanism.  Moreover,  bolts  of  this  kind 
frequently  become  rusted  and  are  difficult  for  even  an  adult 
to  open  quickly.  No  matter  what  kind  of  a  fastening  is  used, 
it  should  be  impossible  for  any  child  to  find  himself  locked 
in.    Bolts  should  bar  entrance,  not  exit. 

Fire  escapes.  The  very  best  form  of  fire  escape  is  an 
interior,  fireproof,  well-isolated  stairway.  When  people  are 
frightened  they  rarely  think  about  fire  escapes  or  ladders; 
they  rush  for  the  entrance  they  commonly  use.  If  the  ordi- 
nary, everyday  stairways  can  be  rendered  thoroughly  safe 


PROTECTING  SCHOOLIIOUSES  FROM  FIRE      1G9 

in  time  of  fire  there  is  little  danger  of  panic.  There  should, 
however,  be  at  least  two,  and  in  large  buildings  several, 
fireproof  stairways,  because  there  is  strong  likelihood  that 
during  a  fire  one  or  more  of  the  stairways  will  be  blocked. 

Where  the  interior  stairs  cannot  be  isolated  from  the  rest 
of  the  building  and  rendered  fireproof,  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  some  form  of  outside  stairway.  Probably  the  most 
satisfactory  form  is  what  is  known  as  the  "Philadelphia 
tower,"  so  called  because  it  was  first  introduced  in  the 
apartment  houses  of  Philadelphia.  It  consists  of  a  large 
masonry  tower  on  the  outside  of  the  building,  but  with 
separate  landings  on  each  floor  connected  with  the  different 
apartments  by  means  of  balconies.  The  stairs  within  these 
towers  should  answer  in  all  details  the  requirements  of 
modern  school  buildings.  They  should  be  fireproof,  they 
should  have  handrails  on  each  side,  platforms  should  be 
placed  between  every  story,  and  no  wedge-shaped  winders 
should  be  allowed.  There  is  absolutely  no  excuse  for  using 
wedge-shaped  steps  in  any  form  of  fire  escape.  They  are 
usually  introduced  in  an  effort  to  save  space,  but  they  are 
difficult  to  use  at  any  time,  and  during  a  fire  or  panic  are 
positively  dangerous.  The  tower  fire  escape  should  begin 
at  the  top  of  the  building,  so  that  firemen  may  reach  the 
roof  easily  in  case  of  need,  and  should  reach  directly 
to  the  ground.  It  should  be  closed  at  the  foot  by  a  door- 
way with  a  panic  bolt  on  the  inside,  but  no  handle  on  the 
outside. 

The  inclined-plane  fire  escape.  There  are  various  other 
forms  of  fire  escapes  on  the  market  which  utilize  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  inclined  circular  plane.  A  trough  is  usually  en- 
closed in  a  tower  of  metal  or  masonry.  Children  enter  from 
every  floor,  sit  down  on  the  trough  and  slide  to  the  bottom. 
Too  great  acceleration  of  speed  is  prevented  by  the  spiral 
twist.    A  chute  at  the  bottom  deposits  the  child  safely  on 


170  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

his  feet  in  the  open  air.  The  idea  of  the  spiral  fire  escape  is 
ingenious  and  may  at  some  time  prove  valuable.  They  are 
used  in  many  places  with  considerable  degree  of  success. 
In  other  places,  however,  it  is  complained  that  the  janitor 
uses  the  chute  as  a  convenient  receptacle  whereby  he  may 
send  waste  paper  and  other  articles  from  the  top  of  the 
building  to  the  ground  floor.  In  one  large  public  institution 
it  was  found  that  the  laundress  regularly  sent  down  the 
bags  of  soiled  linen.  When  a  fire  actually  broke  out  one  day 
the  patients  sliding  down  the  escape  were  blocked  at  the 
bottom  by  heavy  laundry  bags.  In  other  cases  it  is  said  that 
when  the  troughs  are  of  metal  they  are  not  sufficiently  pro- 
tected from  the  weather  and  soon  become  rusty.  As  new 
and  improved  models  are  placed  upon  the  market,  the  danger 
from  these  causes  will  probably  decrease. 

Essentials  of  a  fire  escape.  The  commonest  form  of  fire 
escape  is  the  metal  stairway  attached  to  the  side  of  the 
building.  This  stairway  should  be  provided  with  high  pro- 
tecting sides  of  wire  fencing.  It  should  have  firm  landings 
and  solid  tread  and  risers,  so  that  children  may  be  prevented 
from  growing  dizzy  by  looking  down  through  open  spaces. 
Handrails  should  be  provided  at  each  side,  and  should  con- 
tinue around  the  landings.  A  metal  door  should  be  provided 
at  the  base.  It  should  be  fastened  with  a  bolt  which  has  a 
handle  on  the  inside,  but  none  on  the  out.  This  means  that 
the  door  can  readily  be  opened  by  any  one  descending  the 
fire  escape,  but  access  is  closed  to  the  intruder.  All  fire 
escapes  should  reach  completely  to  the  ground.  The  old 
method  of  leaving  the  fire  escape  with  a  platform  about  one 
story  high,  from  which  children  are  supposed  to  jump,  or 
providing  a  swinging  ladder  weighted  at  one  end  which  is 
suspended  until  the  weight  of  the  person  comes  upon  the 
ladder,  tends  to  produce  panic  in  people  already  frightened 
because  of  an  alarm  of  fire. 


PROTECTING  SCHOOLHOUSES  FROM  FIRE      171 

The  fire  escape  should  be  readily  accessible  from  every 
classroom  without  going  into  the  corridor.  It  is  allowable  to 
have  doors  between  classrooms  so  that  the  children  of  one 
may  reach  the  fire  escape  by  going  through  the  next  room. 
Escape  should  be  provided  on  both  ends  of  the  building. 
Entrance  to  the  fire  escapes  should  be  by  means  of  full- 
length  doors  taking  the  place  of  windows  within  the  class- 
rooms. These  doors  should  be  covered  with  glass  so  as 
to  admit  light.  The  plan  of  having  children  climb  through 
actual  windows  is  decidedly  bad,  because  it  is  a  difficult 
matter  and  inhibits  speed.  Outside  of  every  window  should 
be  a  broad  metal  platform  with  a  railing  around  it,  so  that 
there  is  no  danger  of  falling.  The  stairs  should  lead  down- 
ward from  this  platform  in  the  same  manner  that  stairs  lead 
from  any  landing. 

It  should  be  exactly  as  easy  to  descend  the  fire  escape  as 
it  is  to  go  down  the  ordinary  stairway.  There  should  be  no 
danger  of  dizziness,  no  feeling  of  insecurity.  Metal  ladders 
are  almost  useless,  and  should  never  be  placed  on  school 
buildings.  It  should  not  be  necessary  to  climb  through  a 
hole  in  order  to  reach  the  steps.  Metal  treads  without  risers 
should  be  avoided,  because  they  lead  to  dizziness.  A  com- 
mon error  in  placing  fire  escapes  is  to  have  them  too  near  to 
the  school  building.  The  old  form  of  ladder,  already  men- 
tioned, usually  clings  to  the  wall  itself.  Many  fire  escapes 
pass  directly  in  front  of  windows,  and  in  case  of  fire  flames 
are  apt  to  break  through  the  opening  and  encircle  the  escape. 
If  a  metal  fire  escape  is  provided  it  should  be  placed  at  least 
fifteen  feet  from  the  wall  of  the  building.  This  is  required  in 
the  Ohio  code;  it  should  be  required  everywhere. 

Fire  escapes  such  as  those  just  described  are  unsightly. 
They"  cover  large  areas  of  the  building  with  metal-work. 
They  extend  far  out  into  the  playgrounds.  School  boards 
will  probably  hesitate  if  asked  to  erect  them.    The  tower 


172  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

escapes,  enclosing  well-built  fire-proof  stairways,  are  much 
more  sightly  and  should  generally  be  recommended. 

Basement.  Most  school  fires  are  started  in  the  basement. 
They  are  caused  by  over-heated  pipes,  defective  furnaces, 
improper  disposal  of  waste  or  ashes,  smouldering  matches, 
and  the  like.  If  the  basement  is  rendered  thoroughly  fire- 
proof, the  chances  are  large  that  any  fire  started  there  could 
be  held  in  check  for  a  sufficiently  long  time  to  enable  all  the 
children  to  escape.  In  old  buildings  it  is  considerably  more 
easy  to  isolate  the  furnace-room  from  the  rest  of  the  building 
than  it  is,  for  example,  to  render  the  stairs  fireproof.  It  is 
absolutely  essential  that  the  ceiling  above  the  furnace  or  the 
boilers  be  covered  with  some  fireproof  material.  The  best 
method  is  probably  to  make  a  concrete  flooring  above  it, 
but  even  metal  sheeting  will  hold  fire  for  a  considerable 
space  of  time.  If  the  floor  over  the  boiler  is  of  ordinary  wood- 
joist  construction,  the  joists  should  be  filled  in  solid,  with 
mortar  or  mineral  wool,  and  the  ceiling  should  be  of  thick 
plastering  on  metal  laths  wired  to  metal  furring.  A  better 
plan  is  to  make  the  entire  cellar  ceiling  fireproof  by  substi- 
tuting concrete  for  wood. 

The  walls  about  the  boiler-room,  furnace,  and  fuel-rooms 
should  be  of  fireproof  construction  and  solidly  built,  and 
there  should  be  no  general  arches  opening  into  the  rest  of 
the  basement.  Doors  should  be  covered  with  metal  and 
made  self-closing.  They  should  not  be  provided  with  hooks 
to  hold  them  open,  but  should  swing  shut  after  any  one 
passes  through.  Where  possible  all  lights  in  the  fuel-room 
and  boiler-room  should  be  electric,  not  gas  or  kerosene. 
Sometimes  an  unprotected  gas  jet  extends  into  the  room 
where  coal  is  stored  and  remains  a  constant  source  of  danger. 

Special  receptacles  should  be  provided  for  ashes  and  waste 
paper.  It  seems  self-evident  to  say  that  hot  ashes  should 
never  be  placed  in  wooden  bins  or  barrels,  yet  there  are 


PROTECTING  SCIIOOLHOUSES  FROM  FIRE       173 

many  schools  where  hot  or  only  partially  cooled  ashes  are 
actually  disposed  of  in  this  way.  Ash  and  paper  bins  should 
be  lined  with  metal,  and  provided  with  metal  covers;  and 
arrangements  should  be  made  to  have  them  emptied  and 
contents  removed  from  the  building  at  least  once  a  week. 
Cotton  waste  when  used  should  be  burned  at  once,  and  the 
main  supplies  should  be  kept  in  metal  receptacle-. 

In  building  new  schoolhouses  it  is  desirable  to  erect  the 
furnace-room,  boiler-room,  etc.,  in  buildings  completely 
isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  structure.  This  can  best  be 
done  by  making  separate  buildings  with  underground  con- 
nections, but  having  entrance  directly  from  outdoors  in- 
stead of  going  through  the  main  building.  In  any  case  the 
cellar  stairs  should  be  made  fireproof,  and  a  door  covered 
with  metal  or  made  of  other  fireproof  material  should  be 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  stairs. 

Cupboards.  In  old  buildings  it  is  a  common  matter  to 
find  storage  cupboards  located  under  the  stairways;  There 
supplies  are  kept,  such  as  raffia  and  other  material  for 
manual  training.  Books  and  paper  closets  are  sometimes 
so  located.  In  other  instances  cupboards  under  the  stairs 
are  used  as  wardrobes  for  children's  wraps.  Sometimes  the 
janitor  uses  these  places  to  store  his  supplies,  oils,  waste, 
sweeping  compounds,  etc.  It  can  safely  be  said  that  no 
cupboard  should  ever  be  located  under  any  stairway  even 
in  fireproof  buildings.  In  old  buildings  where  they  are 
already  so  built  they  should  be  lined  with  metal,  and  used 
only  for  non-inflammable  materials.  If  there  is  any  danger 
of  their  being  used  in  any  other  way  the  cupboard  should 
be  closed  and  kept  locked. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  in  the  matter  of  storing 
waste,  oils,  raffia,  etc.  Fires  frequently  start  in  cupboards 
where  these  materials  are  stored,  and  gain  a  fierce  headway 
before  they  are  discovered.    Storage-rooms  for  inilammable 


174  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

material  should  be  rendered  fireproof  by  masonry  walls  or 
by  metal  lining.  It  is  not  infrequent  to  find,  even  in  the 
best  large  city  systems,  schools  in  which  the  janitor  stores 
his  small  supply  of  coke  for  starting  the  fire  directly  under, 
and  in  fact  touching,  wooden  stairs  leading  to  the  main  part 
of  the  building.  Such  criminal  negligence  should  not  be 
allowed,  but  it  can  be  prevented  only  by  careful  supervision 
and  instruction. 

Manual  training  and  domestic  science.  Manual-training 
and  domestic-science  rooms  are  especially  apt  to  be  the 
scenes  of  fire,  because  in  the  former  case  there  are  large 
supplies  of  lumber  and  sometimes  paints  and  stains;  in  the 
latter  gas  stoves,  coal  ranges,  stores  of  fuel,  and  the  like, 
are  apt  to  be  carelessly  handled  and  result  in  fires.  Both 
these  rooms  should  be  provided  with  fireproof  ceilings,  and 
in  non-fireproof  buildings  with  direct  access  to  fire  escapes. 
It  is  usually  better  to  place  these  rooms  in  the  basement  or 
on  the  ground  floor  and  give  them  direct  outside  doorways. 
In  a  domestic-science  room  it  is  also  important  to  see  that 
small  supplies  of  coal  and  wood,  if  kept  in  the  room,  are 
placed  in  fireproof  boxes.  Large  wooden  boxes  fined  with 
metal  make  satisfactory  receptacles. 

Pipes  and  wires.  The  Collinwood  fire  was  probably 
caused  by  a  steam  pipe  resting  on  a  wooden  joist.  Steam 
pipes  should  be  properly  protected.  Whenever  they  pass 
through  partitions  or  over  wooden  joists  they  should  be 
bound  with  a  special  covering  or  the  wood  itself  should  be 
protected  by  metal  or  some  other  material.  It  is  not  enough 
to  have  the  steam  pipes  just  escape  touching  the  wood.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  a  small  area  between  wood  and  pipes  is  some- 
what more  dangerous  than  to  have  the  pipe  actually  resting 
firmly  against  the  wood.  Unless  a  space  of  at  least  three 
inches  exists  between  the  two,  careful  measures  should  be 
taken  to  guard  against  fire. 


PROTECTING  SCHOOLHOUSES  FROM  FIRE      175 

Most  modern  city  buildings  are  provided  with  electricity. 
This  is  considerably  safer  than  gas  if  the  wires  are  properly 
protected.  In  most  cities  regulations  are  such  that  defective 
wiring  cannot  be  established  with  the  approval  of  the  light- 
ing inspectors.  Gas  pipes  are  apt  to  leak.  In  old  buildings, 
as  the  buildings  settle,  pipes  are  sometimes  jarred  apart, 
and  the  resulting  small  leaks  are  sometimes  difficult  to  locate. 
Care  should  be  taken,  too,  to  make  sure  that  the  gas  meter 
is  properly  supported.  Sometimes,  where  the  meter  was 
originally  carefully  installed,  changes  are  later  made,  and 
the  meter  left  hanging  without  anything  beneath  to  hold  it 
firmly.  In  such  cases  leaks  and  explosions  are  exceedingly 
apt  to  occur.  Wiring,  piping,  and  heating  should  be  care- 
fully inspected  yearly  with  a  view  toward  locating  possible 
sources  of  danger. 

Sprinklers.  It  has  already  been  suggested  that  most 
fires  start  in  the  basement  of  school  buildings.  One  of  the 
most  effective  means  of  preventing  the  spread  of  fire  to  other 
parts  of  the  building  is  to  install  sprinkler  systems  in  the 
fuel-room,  boiler-room,  and  storage-rooms.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  could  the  expense  be  met,  to  install  sprinkler  systems 
throughout  the  entire  school  building  would  be  a  rao>t 
effective  way  of  preventing  fire.  In  an  old  building  where 
other  means  of  changing  the  nature  and  location  of  stair >. 
establishing  fire  stops,  etc.,  seem  out  of  the  question,  a 
thorough  system  of  sprinkler  protection  throughout  the 
building  may  render  it  sufficiently  safe  to  warrant  the  school 
board  in  delaying  for  a  time  the  erection  of  a  new  building. 

Each  sprinkler  head  consists  of  a  water  pipe  ending  in 
a  sprinkler  and  sealed  with  fusible  metal.  Under  unusual 
heat  these  seals  are  melted  and  the  water  released.  Usually 
the  system  is  so  arranged  that  the  melting  of  any  one  of 
these  seals  causes  bells  to  be  rung  all  over  the  building. 
Water  rushes  through  the  sprinkler  until  shut  off.    In  this 


176  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

way  the  sprinkler  is  both  an  automatic  fire  extinguisher  and 
fire  alarm,  and  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  fire  protection. 
In  order  to  install  a  suitable  sprinkler  system  care  should 
be  taken  to  have  the  water  pressure  sufficiently  strong  and 
to  protect  pipes  from  freezing. 

Fire  extinguishers.  In  every  building  which  is  not  com- 
pletely fireproof  chemical  extinguishers  should  be  placed  in 
the  boiler-room,  in  the  storeroom,  one  at  the  head  of  the 
basement  stairs,  one  in  each  domestic-science  room,  shop, 
and  laboratory,  and  two  on  every  floor  of  the  building.  The 
extinguishers  should  be  recharged  at  frequent  intervals, 
according  to  the  directions  given  by  the  manufacturers. 
Fire  hose,  in  lengths  sufficient  to  stretch  the  entire  distance 
of  the  building,  should  be  placed  on  swinging  racks  on  each 
floor  and  in  the  basement.  In  very  large  buildings  hose 
should  be  supplied  for  each  of  the  corridors.  In  rural  schools, 
where  running  water  is  not  available,  fire  pails  should  be 
kept  filled  with  water  on  every  floor. 

Signals.  Fire  gongs  should  be  so  arranged  that  alarm 
can  be  given  from  every  floor  or  from  the  basement.  In 
many  schools  it  is  necessary  to  go  to  the  principal's  office 
in  order  to  ring  the  alarm.  This  arrangement  often  means 
a  decided  loss  of  time.  Where  sprinkler  systems  are  provided 
in  the  basement  or  other  parts  of  the  building,  gongs  should 
be  arranged  so  that  when  the  sprinkler  heads  are  melted 
and  opened  alarm  will  be  given  in  various  parts  of  the  build- 
ing. Signal  boxes  or  some  other  form  of  direct  communica- 
tion with  fire  headquarters,  other  than  telephones,  should 
be  installed  within  the  building  on  every  floor. 

Fire  drills.  Where  school  buildings  are  equipped  with 
outside  iron  fire  escapes  it  should  be  the  custom  of  teachers 
on  the  upper  floors  to  dismiss  classes  on  clear  days  by  having 
them  descend  the  fire  escape  rather  than  the  main  stairway. 
This  has  the  advantage  of  preventing  congestion  in  the 


PROTECTING  SCHOOLHOUSES  FROM  FIRE      177 

corridors,  and  of  accustoming  the  children  to  the  thought 
of  using  the  fire  escape  as  an  outside  exit.  In  cases  where 
children  have  not  been  regularly  drilled  in  this  way,  panics 
often  result  from  fear  of  trying  an  unfamiliar  route. 

The  following  directions  for  the  organization  of  fire  drills 
were  taken  from  the  bulletin  published  by  the  Division  of 
Education  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  in  1913,  entitled, 
Fire  Protection  in  Public  Schools:  — 

Dismissal  call:  Three  strokes  of  gong,  repeated  three  times, 
with  pause  between  each  repetition. 

Teachers  go  immediately  to  door  and  open  it.  Girls  form  line 
at  rear  of  room,  boys  at  front,  ready  to  pass  out  together.  All 
classes  ready  in  ten  seconds.   Do  not  pause  for  wraps. 

Janitor  stands  on  first  floor  near  front  stairs. 

Floor  signals:  One  stroke  for  first  floor,  two  for  second,  three 
for  third.  At  one  stroke,  first-floor  classes  leave  building  rapidly 
by  nearest  exit.  At  two  strokes,  second-floor  classes  leave  by  near- 
est stairway.  At  three  strokes,  third-floor  classes  leave  by  nearest 
stairway.  Classes  pass  down,  two  persons  abreast,  without  hurry, 
crowding,  or  pushing,  and  out  by  nearest  exit.  Drill  shall  be  so 
arranged  that  lines  of  pupils  do  not  intersect.  Teachers  lead  classes. 
Monitors  march  at  end  of  line,  and  see  that  no  pupils  are  left  in 
classrooms.  Each  class  starts  downstairs  when  end  of  class  in 
front  reaches  first  landing.  Pupils  march  directly  away  from 
building. 

Other  details:  All  doors  shall  be  unlocked,  and  gates  unlocked 
and  hooked  back,  during  school  hours. 

Principals  shall  see  that  fire  escapes  are  cleared  of  ice  and  snow 
immediately  after  each  storm. 

Arrange  signaling  apparatus  so  that  it  can  be  sounded  from 
every  floor.   Train  all  teachers  to  give  signals. 

Call  fire  drills  at  least  once  every  two  weeks.  Have  them  occur 
without  warning  — 

when  exercises  are  being  held  in  assembly  room; 

during  any  one  of  the  recesses; 

while  all  pupils  are  in  classrooms; 

when  one  or  more  exits  may  be  supposed  to  be  blocks  I : 

where  the  peril  may  be  assumed  to  be  imminent  to  a  particular 
part  of  the  school. 


178  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Drills  shall  include  frequent  practice  in  descending  fire  escapes. 
Report  every  drill  to  school  superintendent,  giving  form  of 
drill,  and  time  elapsed  between  first  signal  and  exit  of  last  person. 

Fire  protection  pays.  There  are  two  parts  to  the  problem 
of  fire  protection.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  desirable  to  prevent 
flames  from  spreading;  that  is,  to  preserve  property.  In  the 
second  place,  we  must  see  to  it  that  even  though  buildings 
may  eventually  burn  down,  no  lives  are  lost  in  the  process. 
We  must  retard  the  flames  for  a  sufficient  period  to  enable  all 
occupants  of  the  building  to  escape,  and  we  must  make 
special  provisions  against  the  danger  of  panic.  It  is  the 
consideration  of  panic  which  bids  us  make  straight  stair- 
ways instead  of  curved,  avoid  wedge-shaped  stairs,  cut  off 
dangerous  corners,  have  doors  opening  outward,  etc.  For 
the  purposes  of  retarding  fire  we  use  the  metal  ceilings  and 
enclosures  in  the  basement,  fire  walls  on  every  floor,  en- 
closed stairways,  and  the  like.  The  following  quotation, 
taken  from  the  Cyclopedia  of  Fire  Prevention  and  Insurance 
(vol.  i,  p.  67),  brings  home  to  us  the  necessity  of  providing 
quick  and  easy  egress  for  all  school  children  in  case  of  fire. 
In  many  communities  daily  school  attendance  means  daily 
danger  of  death :  — 

We  average 

3  theaters  6  apartment  houses 

3  public  halls  3  department  stores 

12  churches  2  jails 

10  schools  26  hotels 

2  hospitals  140  flat  buildings,  and 

2  asylums  nearly  1600  houses 
2  colleges 
burned  up  or  partially  destroyed  every  week  in  the  year. 

Most  schools  built  before  1900,  and  many  built  after  that 
date,  are  not  even  fire  retarding.  To  quote  again  from  the 
Russell  Sage  Foundation  pamphlet :  — 


PROTECTING  SCHOOLHOUSES  FROM  FIRE      1T0 

The  use  of  non-combustible  material  for  exterior  walls  docs  not 
insure  safety  from  fire.  Wooden  walls  may  blaze  within  a  concrete 
shell  as  wooden  logs  blaze  within  an  iron  stove.  In  each  case  the 
flames  are  fanned  by  a  draught.  Draughts  are  dangerous.  Isolate 
stair  wells  and  air  shafts  by  fireproof  walls  and  doors.  Cut  the 
attic  in  half  by  a  partition.  Avoid  draughts  everywhere.  Don't 
build  your  schoolhouse  as  you  build  a  stove. 


QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Suppose  that  a  school  board  member  argues  that  since  no  child  in 
your  town  has  ever  lost  his  life  in  a  school  fire,  and  since  schools 
rarely  burn  down,  it  is  poor  business  to  spend  much  money  on  fire  pro- 
tection, what  would  you  answer? 

2.  Secure  plans  of  the  Collinwood  school,  and  criticize  from  the  point  of 
view  of  fire  risk. 

3.  Where  it  is  proposed  to  cut  long  corridors  by  vertical  fire  stops,  what 
attitude  should  be  taken  with  regard  to  the  objection  that  tin-  stops 
with  automatically  closing  doors  will  materially  retard  speed  in  chang- 
ing classes? 

4.  Study  a  building  with  wedge-shaped  steps  in  one  of  the  stairways, 
and  make  plans  for  rendering  the  stairway  safe  without  changing  the 
location  or  size  of  the  stair  well. 

5.  Outline  a  schedule  for  use  in  making  a  fire-protection  survey. 

6.  Make  a  fire- protection  survey  of  the  buildings  in  your  town.  In 
making  your  recommendations  keep  the  matter  of  costs  in  mind. 

7.  What  is  the  difference  in  insurance  rates  between  non-fireproof 
buildings  with  and  without  sprinkler  systems? 

8.  Should  teachers  lead  their  classes  in  fire  drills  or  follow  them?  What 
are  the  arguments  on  each  side? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  slow-burning  construction?  How  safe  does  it 
render  school  buldings?   Are  other  precautions  necessary? 

10.  How  much  more  costly  is  a  fireproof  than  a  semi-fireproof  building? 
What  are  the  cheapest  fireproof  materials? 

11.  If  only  a  limited  amount  of  money  is  available  for  fire  protection, 
how  can  it  best  be  expended? 

12.  If  the  State  or  local  fire  inspectors  have  "passed"  a  school  building 
in  your  town,  is  not  this  sufficient  proof  that  the  building  is  safe? 
Need  the  school  board  make  any  further  study  of  local  conditions? 

13.  What  sort  of  State  laws  should  be  passed  for  fire  protection  in  public 
schools?  Who  should  make  specific  requirements?'  How  should  they 
be  enforced?  Should  private  schools  come  under  the  act?  What 
about  inspection? 


180  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  and  May.   School  Buildings  and  Equipment.   Cleveland 

Education  Survey.    (1916.) 
Ayres,  May,  and  Cooper,  Frank  Irving.   Safeguarding  Schoolhouses  from 

tire.   Published  by  American  School  Board  Journal.    (1913.) 
Brookline,  Mass.,  School  Survey  report,  1917. 
Faneuil  Hall  Committee.    Safeguarding  Schoolhouses  from  Fire.    Published 

by  the  Fire  Prevention  Commissioner  for  the  Metropolitan  District 

of  Massachusetts.    (January,  1916.) 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  Division  of  Education.  Fire  Protection  in  Public 

Schools.    (New  York,  1913.) 
Safety  Engineering  Magazine.   New  York  City.   See  back  file*  and  current 

numbers. 


CHAPTER  X 

KEEPING  THE  SCH00LE10USE  CLEAN 

The  janitor.  The  school  janitor  is  at  once  one  of  the  most 
important  and  least  understood  members  of  the  educational 
staff.  He  is  directly  charged  with  maintaining  hygienic  con- 
ditions in  the  schoolhouse;  such  matters  as  heating,  ventila- 
tion, cleaning,  adjustment  of  school  furniture,  etc.,  rest  upon 
his  shoulders;  and  yet  his  work  is  for  the  most  part  un- 
studied and  unstandardized.  Not  only  do  the  qualifications 
of  janitors  vary  immensely  from  city  to  city,  but  actually 
within  the  city  itself  janitors  may  range  from  rather  igno- 
rant men  of  all  work  to  highly  skilled  engineers.  Sometimes 
they  are  appointed  on  the  basis  of  competitive  or  civil- 
service  examinations,  and  sometimes  appointment  is  made 
without  any  examination,  but  simply  according  to  the  whim 
of  the  school  board.  In  a  few  cities  there  is  a  head  janitor 
who  has  supervision  over  the  others.  In  most  communities. 
however,  janitors  are  subjected  either  to  no  supervision  at 
all,  or  else  nominal  supervision  by  some  person  in  the  super- 
intendent's office. 

In  like  manner  the  pay  of  the  janitor  depends  upon  no 
recognized  principle,  but  in  most  cases  varies  from  school  to 
school  according  to  some  inherited  plan.  It  is  not  at  all 
unusual  to  find  janitors  with  large  heating  plants  and  many 
square  feet  of  floor  area  being  paid  considerably  smaller 
amounts  than  janitors  with  simpler  heating  plants  and 
smaller  buildings.  Some  janitors  are  given  assistants  and 
others  are  not,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  recognized  basis  for 
number  of  workers  or  hours  of  work.  The  whole  question  of 
the  employment  of  janitors  is  seriously  neglected. 


182  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

If  school  buildings  are  to  be  properly  run  and  cared  for, 
each  system  should  adopt  for  itself  a  minimum  standard, 
below  which  new  janitors  shall  not  be  allowed  to  fall. 
Qualifications  of  past  experience,  training,  and  the  success- 
ful passing  of  practical  examinations  should  be  carefully 
outlined.  Janitors  already  in  the  service  who  have  not  these 
qualifications  should  be  given  help  and  opportunity  to  im- 
prove their  standing,  and  if  unable  to  meet  the  new  require- 
ments after  a  fair  interval  should  be  eliminated  from  the 
system.  A  committee  should  be  appointed  to  study  the 
work  of  janitors  in  the  various  schools,  and  on  the  results  of 
this  examination  a  schedule  of  pay  should  be  made  up.  In 
making  this  schedule  probably  the  greatest  weight  should 
be  given  to  the  complexities  of  the  heating  plant.  The  most 
able  janitors  should  be  in  charge  of  the  most  complex  heat- 
ing system,  and  should  be  paid  the  largest  sum.  Somewhat 
less  important,  and  to  be  given  somewhat  less  weight  in 
fixing  salaries,  is  the  matter  of  the  number  of  square  feet  of 
floor  space.  Some  plan  should  also  be  devised  for  increasing 
wages  from  time  to  time,  according  to  years  of  service  and 
increased  proficiency.  Assistants  should  be  provided  so  that 
the  work  that  needs  to  be  done  can  be  done  without  unduly 
long  hours  or  the  use  of  extra  labor.  The  actual  number  will 
usually  be  decided  on  the  same  basis  as  the  amount  of  pay. 

Provision  should  be  made  so  that  janitors  already  in  serv- 
ice may  receive  training  and  education  in  matters  of  school 
hygiene.  As  is  the  case  with  the  school  teacher,  janitors 
should  be  made  to  realize  the  professional  importance  of 
their  work.  They  should  be  encouraged  to  meet  in  confer- 
ences to  discuss  various  points  of  interest;  they  should  be 
addressed  by  specialists  in  heating,  ventilation,  hygiene, 
and  the  like;  they  should,  from  time  to  time,  hold  joint  con- 
ferences with  teachers  and  principals,  in  order  that  each 
may  understand  the  point  of  view  of  the  other;  and  some 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  183 

form  of  official  recognition  should  be  given  by  the  superin- 
tendent and  the  board  for  exceptional  service.  The  janitor's 
position  is  important.  If  he  is  to  carry  on  his  work  success- 
fully he  must  have  the  advice  and  interest  of  his  supervisory 
officers,  and  should  realize  the  importance  of  the  task  with 
which  he  is  charged.  The  intelligent  and  efficient  school 
janitor  is  one  of  the  most  successful  allies  of  the  school 
physician  and  the  nurse. 

How  diseases  are  transmitted.  Schoolrooms  must  be 
cleaned  in  order  to  prevent  children  from  becoming  sick. 
Unclean  schoolrooms  may  produce  illness  in  two  ways. 
They  may  aid  in  transferring  germs  from  one  child  to  an- 
other, as  is  the  case  with  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  and  the 
like,  or  they  may  themselves  be  the  cause  of  physical  dis- 
turbances. In  this  latter  case,  for  example,  the  unwashed 
window  may  produce  serious  eye-strain;  dust  on  a  school- 
room floor  may  pierce  the  delicate  lining  of  the  lungs  and 
bring  about  such  a  condition  that  tuberculosis  may  easily 
find  lodgement. 

There  are  many  theories  concerning  the  spread  of  disease. 
In  earlier  days  it  was  thought  that  germs  flew  through  the 
air  from  one  person  to  another;  and  various  fumigating 
preparations  were  used  in  order  to  fill  the  air  with  gases 
which  would  kill  the  escaping  germs.  Then  again  it  has  been 
thought  that  germs  find  their  way  to  articles  of  clothing, 
furniture,  wall-paper,  and  the  like,  and  lodge  there  for  long 
periods  of  time,  varying  from  a  few  days  to  several  months 
or  years.  For  example,  it  was  long  considered  true  that  the 
tuberculosis  germ  lodged  in  wall-paper  or  plaster  of  rooms 
in  which  patients  had  lived  and  so  preserved  the  disease 
from  month  to  month,  with  the  result  that  houses  became 
veritable  death  traps  for  new  tenants.  This  second  method 
of  disease  transmission  by  germs  on  articles  over  a  consider- 
able period  of  time  is  known  as  transmission  by  fomites. 


184,  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

The  third  and  most  recent  theory  of  disease  transmission  is 
that  germs  are  carried  by  direct  contact;  that  is,  either  by 
one  sick  person  touching  a  well  person,  or  by  new  and  still 
living  germs  being  carried  in  particles  of  mucus,  flakes  of 
skin,  or  the  like,  from  one  person  to  another.  In  this  latter 
case  little  time  is  supposed  to  elapse  during  the  process  of 
transmission. 

The  problem  of  transmission  of  contagious  diseases  is  still 
in  an  experimental  stage.  Absolute  results  have  not  yet 
been  secured,  but  in  general  it  may  be  stated  that  the  evi- 
dence points  toward  very  little  transmission  by  means  of  the 
air.  It  is  noted,  for  example,  that  persons  with  different 
contagious  diseases  are  frequently  treated  in  the  hospital 
in  one  large  room,  separated  only  by  screens  or  cubicle  walls. 
Were  air  transmission  a  common  thing  we  should  expect  to 
have  patients  in  these  hospitals  come  down  with  many 
different  contagious  diseases.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  very 
rarely  happens,  and  when  it  does  happen  the  explanation 
is  usually  easily  found  in  some  other  source. 

Modern  science  is  also  beginning  to  believe  that  trans- 
mission by  means  of  articles  of  clothing,  furniture,  and  the 
like,  which  have  become  infected  several  days  or  hours  pre- 
vious, is  considerably  less  frequent  than  has  been  thought. 
It  is  pointed  out,  for  example,  that  thousands  of  people 
use  the  books  in  the  public  libraries.  Undoubtedly  every 
year  many  hundreds  of  these  books  become  infected  by 
contagious-disease  germs.  Probably  disease  is  sometimes 
spread  in  this  way,  but  certainly  such  transmission  cannot 
be  general,  for  if  it  were  we  should  have  wave  after  wave  of 
epidemics  sweeping  through  the  city,  which  could  in  time 
be  traced  to  the  public  library.  Similarly,  very  little  disease 
seems  to  be  transmitted  by  metal  or  paper  money,  although 
both  are  frequently  contaminated  by  being  carried  between 
the  lips,  crushed  in  the  hands,  etc.   Physicians  do  not  deny 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  185 

the  possibility  of  transmitting  disease  by  this  indirect 
method.  In  fact,  there  are  certain  undeniable  cases  on 
record  where  diseases  have  been  so  transmitted.  Anthrax, 
for  example,  has  apparently  been  proved  to  be  transmitted 
through  hides  and  furs  which  have  sometimes  been  packed 
away  for  many  months.  It  is,  however,  increasingly  appar- 
ent that  disease  transmission  through  fomites  is  exceedingly 
rare. 

Stories  are  constantly  being  told  of  "scarlet  fever  rooms" 
and  "tuberculosis  death  houses"  which  would  seem  to  prove 
the  frequency  of  fomite  transmission,  but  upon  careful 
analysis  and  examination  it  is  found  that  the  disease  was 
actually  contracted  through  direct  contact.  Bedbugs,  for 
example,  are  believed  to  be  responsible  for  keeping  disease 
alive  for  months  by  living  in  cracks  of  the  woodwork,  and 
handing  the  germs  down  from  one  generation  to  another 
until,  by  passing  them  on  to  a  susceptible  human  victim, 
they  give  to  the  house  its  grim  reputation. 

There  are  cases,  too,  of  human  "carriers"  who,  while  ap- 
parently in  the  best  of  health,  are  actually  the  hosts  of  dis- 
ease germs  which  thrive  and  multiply  in  their  bodies  and  are 
constantly  being  given  off  in  bowel  or  nasal  discharge,  and 
so  spreading  the  disease  among  other  people.  Doctors  are 
coming  to  believe  that  many  of  our  most  mysterious  epi- 
demics are  spread  by  these  human  carriers,  who,  showing 
no  sign  of  the  disease  themselves,  are  extremely  difficult  to 
locate.  It  is  by  contact  transmission  that  most  contagious 
diseases  are  spread,  and  it  is  against  this  form  of  transmission 
that  the  public  school  must  constantly  be  on  guard.  For  this 
reason  medical  inspection  has  established  a  system  whereby 
children  showing  the  preliminary  symptoms  of  any  of  the 
common  contagious  diseases  are  immediately  excluded  on 
suspicion,  and  cannot  return  to  the  classroom  until  permis- 
sion has  been  given  by  a  physician.  In  this  way  the  greatest 


186  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

source  of  danger  is  immediately  removed.  When  through 
some  oversight  a  child  who  is  in  the  early  stages  of  con- 
tagious disease  is  overlooked  and  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
schoolroom,  he  becomes  a  source  of  danger  to  his  companions. 

In  the  old  days  of  the  common  drinking-cup  and  the 
common  towel  contagious  disease  was  passed  from  one  child 
to  another  very  rapidly,  because  the  germs  had  no  oppor- 
tunity to  die  before  the  next  child  used  the  utensil.  The  life 
of  the  germ  is  usually  very  short,  although  there  are  some 
notable  exceptions  to  the  rule.  Many  germs  are  killed  by  a 
few  hours'  exposure  to  the  sunlight.  The  chief  danger  in  the 
classroom  is  that  of  immediate  infection  before  the  germs 
have  had  time  to  dry  or  become  weakened.  The  most  serious 
danger  is  the  child  who  coughs  and  sneezes.  Very  many  of 
the  common  diseases  of  childhood  begin  with  such  coughs  or 
colds,  and  the  germs  are  spread  through  minute  droplets  of 
mucus  which  are  sprayed  into  the  air.  These  tiny  drops  fall 
on  the  surrounding  desks,  floor,  chairs,  and  the  like,  and 
may  easily  be  transferred  while  still  moist  and  alive  to  the 
hands  and  faces  of  near-by  children.  It  is  because  of  the 
very  great  danger  of  spreading  disease  by  means  of  mucus 
that  we  insist  that  every  schoolroom  be  so  placed  that  it 
may  be  flooded  with  sunshine  at  least  once  a  day.  Sunshine 
kills  germs  faster  than  almost  any  other  germicide. 

Diseases  are  also  probably  very  frequently  spread  through 
the  common  toilet.  Toilets  are  often  contaminated,  even 
when  children  are  taught  to  be  careful.  Germs  are  found 
upon  the  seats,  walls,  and  doors  of  the  toilets,  and  upon  the 
handles  of  outer  doors.  It  is  because  of  the  danger  of  con- 
tagious diseases  that  we  have  urged  in  an  earlier  chapter 
the  supreme  importance  of  providing  wash-basins  with  hot 
water  and  soap  near  or  directly  outside  the  entrance  door 
to  every  toilet-room.  Were  such  facilities  provided  and 
inspection  made  sufficiently  severe,  so  that  all  children 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  187 

were  forced  to  wash  their  hands  after  using  the  toilet,  many 
of  the  contagious  diseases  of  childhood  would  probably  be 
prevented. 

Prevention  of  contagious  diseases.  Contagious  diseases 
may,  then,  be  kept  from  spreading,  first,  by  a  careful  system 
of  medical  inspection  which  excludes  every  child  who  shows 
suspicious  early  symptoms,  and  insists  that  he  receive  a 
physician's  certificate  of  health  before  being  readmitted  to 
the  classroom. 

In  the  second  place,  epidemics  may  be  prevented  by  flood- 
ing the  classrooms  with  sunlight  for  a  considerable  portion 
of  every  day.  It  is  a  very  common  habit  of  the  school  jan- 
itor to  pull  down  the  curtains  of  the  classrooms  as  soon  as 
the  daily  cleaning  is  over,  and  leave  them  down  until  classes 
open  the  following  morning.  He  does  this  partly  from  habit, 
and  partly  in  order  to  keep  his  windows  clean.  In  many 
homes  the  unused  rooms  are  always  kept  darkened.  One 
finds  it  this  way,  too,  even  in  our  best  hotels.  The  practice 
has  become  traditional  with  housekeepers,  chambermaids, 
and  janitors.  Dust,  too,  is  apt  to  rise  from  the  floor  and 
settle  on  the  windows,  and  drawing  the  shades  keeps  much 
of  it  off.  It  will  probably  be  necessary  to  pass  a  rigid  rule 
concerning  this  matter  of  drawing  shades  if  the  classrooms 
are  to  receive  the  proper  amount  of  sunshine.  Rooms  facing 
the  east  should  be  open  to  the  sunlight  from  very  early  in 
the  morning  until  class  time.  Rooms  on  the  west  should  be 
open  to  the  sun  at  noon  when  the  children  are  not  there, 
and  from  the  time  school  closes  in  the  afternoon  until  sunset. 
During  these  hours  the  shades  on  the  classroom  windows 
should  be  rolled  tight,  so  that  the  entire  window  is  left  free 
to  admit  sunlight.  Daily  exposure  to  the  sun  is  of  far  more 
value  than  most  forms  of  germicidal  preparation.  If  janitors 
are  provided  with  a  sufficient  number  of  helpers,  so  that 
they  can  clean  the  windows  frequently,  they  will  not  seri- 


188  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

ously  object  to  this  rule;  whether  they  object  or  not  the  rule 
should  be  strictly  enforced.  It  is  one  of  the  most  economical 
ways  of  preventing  diseases  among  school  children. 

Cleaning  of  schoolroom  floors.  Dust  is  one  of  the  most 
dangerous  factors  to  be  considered  in  school  hygiene.  It  was 
formerly  thought  that  dust  carried  many  pathogenic  mi- 
crobes. Dr.  Alvin  Davidson,  for  instance,  is  said  to  have  col- 
lected more  than  one  hundred  million  germs  in  the  single 
sweeping  of  an  ordinary  schoolroom.  The  New  York  Com- 
mittee on  School  Inquiries,  on  the  other  hand,  found  that 
while  there  are  many  bacteria  in  schoolroom  dust,  very  few 
of  them  are  harmful.  The  same  committee  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  "in  a  dry,  well-lighted  room,  pathogenic 
bacteria  live  but  a  short  time  and  do  not  propagate  or  mul- 
tiply." 

While  it  Is  probable  that  dust  does  not  carry  many  virulent 
germs,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  dust  is  decidedly  harmful 
because  of  the  sharp  particles  it  contains.  Statistics  show 
that  there  are  approximately  six  times  as  many  deaths  from 
consumption  and  pulmonary  diseases  in  the  trades  in  which 
sharp  dust  is  made  as  from  the  occupations  of  farming, 
planting,  and  raising  cattle.  This  is  because  the  sharp  dust 
particles  are  breathed  into  the  lungs.  They  irritate  the  mem- 
brane of  the  throat  and  lungs  and  frequently  assist  in  spread- 
ing infection.  Whether  or  not  the  tuberculosis  germ  is  actu- 
ally carried  by  dust  is  an  undecided  question,  but  it  seems 
certainly  to  be  true  that  tuberculosis  flourishes  in  dusty 
trades.  The  lining  of  the  lungs  having  become  irritated,  the 
tuberculosis  germ  finds  a  ready  reception.  Tuberculosis  is 
the  cause  of  death  more  often  among  teachers  than  among 
workers  in  all  the  other  fields  together.  Moreover,  it  is  com- 
monly estimated  that  between  one  third  and  one  half  of  all 
school  children  have  tuberculosis  at  some  time  during  the 
school  period.  This  probably  means  that  schoolroom  dust  is 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  189 

largely  responsible  for  the  high  tuberculosis  mortality.  Most 
of  the  classroom  dust  settles  upon  the  floor,  and  therefore 
methods  of  cleaning  schoolroom  floors  are  particularly 
important. 

Most  classroom  floors  are  made  of  wood.  When  properly 
selected  and  laid,  wood  takes  a  good  polish,  is  not  excessively 
expensive,  holds  screws  of  chairs  and  desks  firmly,  is  pleas- 
ant to  walk  upon,  and  is  easily  cleaned.  If  wooden  floors 
are  of  soft  wood  and  are  poorly  laid,  they  wear  out  rapidly. 
Under  frequent  washings  the  wood  shrinks,  and  leaves 
cracks  in  which  dust  may  gather.  It  is  apt  to  break  into 
sharp  splinters,  and  once  having  become  broken  it  is  very 
hard  to  keep  clean.  Wooden  floors  should  be  of  hard  wood, 
straight-grained,  and  free  from  pitch,  rosin  streaks,  or  other 
defects.  Well-seasoned  oak  is  probably  the  best  wood  for 
schoolroom  use.  Hard  maple  is  good,  and  hard  pine  is  also 
in  favor.  The  boards  may  range  from  two  to  two  and  one- 
half  inches  wide;  but  they  should  not  be  wider,  because  it  is 
difficult  to  lay  them  properly  in  wider  widths.  Boards  should 
be  carefully  matched  so  that  no  cracks  are  left  between 
them,  and  nails  should  be  inserted  in  such  a  way  that  the 
wood  is  not  marred  and  holes  are  not  left.  Merely  to  select 
good  material  for  floors  is  not  enough.  Careful  supervision 
should  be  exercised  over  the  workers  as  the  floors  are  laid. 
Improper  laying  or  nailing  will  cause  trouble  for  years 
afterward. 

There  has  recently  been  noticed  a  distinct  tendency  to 
use  linoleum  for  schoolroom  floors.  Cheap  grades  of  lino- 
leum wear  out  quickly,  show  marks,  and  are  expensive. 
A  good  quality  of  battleship  linoleum,  treated  with  preserva- 
tive and  glued  permanently  on  a  cement  surface  of  concrete 
construction  is  quiet,  non-porous,  and  almost  indestruct- 
ible. However,  it  will  not  hold  screws  and  therefore  cannot 
be  used  for  the  regular  fixed  furniture.    Where  furniture  is 


190  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

not  fastened  to  the  floor,  linoleum  is  an  excellent  covering, 
is  easily  cleaned,  and  is  not  excessively  expensive.  Cement 
floors  are  hard,  cold,  and  will  not  hold  screws.  They  are 
undesirable  for  classroom  purposes.  Cement  may,  however, 
be  used  as  the  floor  base  if  it  is  covered  with  wood  or  with 
linoleum. 

The  floors  in  many  of  the  newer  buildings  are  being  laid 
in  what  is  called  "hospital  construction";  that  is,  the  joining 
of  the  floor  and  wall  is  curved  rather  than  made  a  straight 
corner,  so  that  dust  cannot  collect  there.  When  carefully 
made  such  construction  is  excellent.  In  most  cases,  however, 
it  is  found  that  this  joining  is  poorly  made.  The  wood 
shrinks  away  from  the  floor  and  deep  grooves  are  left  which 
quickly  fill  with  dirt.  Careful  supervision  is  needed  in  order 
to  have  this  feature  of  hospital  construction  an  advantage 
rather  than  a  defect. 

Sweeping  and  dusting.  Dry  sweeping  is  the  most  common 
method  of  cleaning  schoolroom  floors.  Brushes  and  brooms 
are  used  to  gather  the  dust  into  piles  and  it  is  then  picked 
up  and  carried  away.  The  difficulty  with  dry  sweeping  is 
that  it  stirs  up  dust  and  does  not  remove  it.  With  each 
stroke  of  the  broom  dust  is  whirled  into  the  air  in  large 
quantities.  There  it  floats  for  a  time,  and  as  the  air  becomes 
quiet  the  dust  gradually  settles  down  upon  floors  and  furni- 
ture as  it  was  before.  In  the  same  way  the  common  method 
of  dry  dusting  with  cloths  or  feather  brushes  is  ineffective, 
because  it  usually  stirs  up  the  dust,  but  does  not  remove  it 
from  the  room.  The  feather  duster  is  particularly  undesir- 
able and  should  be  prohibited. 

One  of  the  best  ways  to  sweep  floors  is  to  use  some  prepa- 
ration which  will  catch  the  dust.  For  example,  if  sawdust, 
mixed  with  water  sufficiently  to  make  it  slightly  damp,  is 
sprinkled  on  the  floors  in  sweeping,  the  little  particles  of 
sawdust  will  gather  the  dust  and  hold  it  so  that  it  may  be 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  191 

gathered  into  a  pile.  This  is  the  same  principle  as  was  used 
by  our  New  England  mothers  when  they  sprinkled  damp 
tea  leaves  on  the  carpet  or  on  cold  mornings  brought  in 
large  handfuls  of  snow,  sprinkled  it  quickly  over  the  floors, 
and  swept  it  up  before  the  heat  of  the  room  could  melt  it. 
In  each  case  the  purpose  was  to  make  the  dust  sufficiently 
damp  so  that  it  could  not  rise  in  the  air,  but  could  be  swept 
into  small  heaps  and  could  be  carried  away.  There  are 
many  so-called  dust-absorbing  compounds  on  the  market. 
These  are  usually  made  with  a  basis  of  sawdust  or  paper, 
mixed  with  water,  oil,  wax,  salsoda,  chloride  of  lime,  sulpho- 
napthol,  formaldehyde,  carbolic  acid,  or  sand.  Some  of 
these  preparations  are  very  expensive,  but  with  a  little 
ingenuity  a  home-made  preparation  may  be  manufactured 
which  will  be  really  satisfactory. 

According  to  general  instructions  a  few  handfuls  of  the 
sweeping  compound  are  thrown  on  the  floor  and  then  pushed 
from  place  to  place,  so  that  the  entire  surface  is  gradually 
covered  by  the  compound  and  broom.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
it  will  frequently  be  found  that  janitors  who  are  using  the 
compound  do  so  in  a  most  haphazard  manner.  Long  halls 
and  corridors  are  usually  fairly  well  swept  in  this  way,  but 
in  classrooms,  where  there  is  fixed  furniture,  janitors  com- 
plain that  small  piles  of  the  sweeping  compound  are  apt 
to  gather  around  the  legs  and  standards  of  the  furniture. 
This  difficulty  is,  in  fact,  so  serious  that  only  a  few  of  the 
most  conscientious  janitors  actually  use  the  sweeping  com- 
pound in  any  effective  manner  when  sweeping  classrooms. 

In  dusting,  as  in  sweeping,  it  is  desirable  to  secure  some 
method  whereby  the  dust  can  be  weighted  so  that  it  will 
not  fly  out  into  the  air  during  the  process.  Instead  of  using 
the  feather  duster,  then,  woolen  or  cotton  cloths  may  be 
secured  and  slightly  moistened  either  with  oil,  wax,  or  water. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  make  these  cloths  too  wet, 


192  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

because  in  such  a  case  they  will  leave  streaks  upon  the 
blackboards  and  furniture.  Dusting  cloths  should  be  barely 
damp  enough  to  catch  and  hold  dust.  Most  of  the  dustless 
dusters  now  sold  in  the  department  stores  are  prepared  in 
this  way.  A  piece  of  cheesecloth  is  dipped  in  some  oil  prepa- 
ration, and  then  allowed  to  become  nearly  dry.  Enough  oil 
remains  in  its  meshes  to  catch  and  lay  the  dust. 

Scrubbing  and  care  of  floors.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  uni- 
versally believed  that  the  only  effective  way  to  clean  a  floor 
was  by  a  general  application  of  hot  water  and  soap.  Much 
of  the  janitor's  time,  and  usually  much  of  the  time  of  his 
wife  also,  was  spent  on  hands  and  knees  scrubbing  the 
schoolroom  floors.  It  is  probably  true  that  water  and  soap 
are  effective  removers  of  germs  and  dirt.  It  is  also  pain- 
fully true  that  most  washing  is  not  especially  effective. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  in  old  schoolrooms,  where  on 
account  of  previous  washings  the  wood  has  become  swollen, 
and  then  has  shrunk  so  that  it  leaves  large  cracks  between 
the  boards.  In  future  scrubbings  the  muddy  water  trickles 
down  between  these  cracks,  and  there  dries  and  leaves 
cakes  of  mud;  so  that  it  is  a  fairly  common  thing  in  old, 
badly  cared-for  buildings  to  see  little  clouds  of  dry  dust 
spring  up  from  between  the  boards  whenever  persons  walk 
across  the  room.  Washing  has  a  very  bad  effect  upon  most 
wooden  floors.  It  widens  the  cracks  and  usually  causes  the 
wood  to  roughen,  so  that  large  splinters  appear.  There  are 
many  different  compounds  recommended  for  use  in  washing 
floors,  such  as  various  washing-powders,  soda,  ammonia, 
sulpho-napthol,  formaldehyde,  oxalic  acid  crystals,  hard 
soap,  soft  soap,  muriatic  acid,  and  coal  oil.  There  are  doubt- 
less times  when  the  use  of  some  or  all  of  these  preparations 
may  be  desirable. 

It  is  common  in  schools,  where  floors  of  classrooms  and 
corridors  are  oiled  or  waxed,  to  find  a  rule  demanding  that 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  193 

floors  of  kindergartens  and  gymnasiums  be  washed  daily  or 
weekly.  This  rule  is  usually  made  in  order  that  floors  may 
not  be  slippery,  so  that  the  children  will  not  fall,  and  so  that 
in  the  kindergarten  children  may  sit  down  upon  the  floor 
without  soiling  their  clothes.  So  far  as  the  latter  objection 
holds,  it  is  true  that  the  common  method  of  oiling  floors 
with  heavy  thick  oil  is  harmful  to  clothing,  but  when  care- 
fully done  oil  and  wax  may  be  applied  in  such  a  way  that 
they  will  leave  no  stains  even  upon  clean  white  handker- 
chiefs when  passed  along  the  surface  of  the  floor.  In  the 
gymnasium  it  should  also  be  noticed  that  when  the  floors 
are  washed  they  frequently  leave  the  small  muddy  deposit 
just  described.  This  means  that  when  exercises  are  carried 
out  upon  these  floors  small  puffs  of  dust  are  constantly  aris- 
ing and  entering  the  lungs  of  the  students.  If  very  carefully 
applied,  the  lighter  forms  of  oil  may  be  used  in  gymnasiums 
without  making  the  floors  slippery. 

Use  of  oil  and  tar.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  oil  and 
wax  properly  applied  make  the  best  finish  for  schoolroom 
floors.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  all  rooms  where 
oil  has  been  tried  have  shown  better  results  than  the  ordi- 
nary scrubbed  wood  floors.  When  the  plan  of  using  oil  first 
came  in,  the  commercial  product  was  a  very  heavy,  dark 
oil,  thick  and  rather  sticky.  When  generously  applied  to  the 
floors,  this  oil  immediately  made  a  most  unpleasant  sur- 
face. Teachers  complained  that  their  skirts  and  the  skirts  of 
the  older  girls  were  seriously  stained  and  soiled  around  the 
bottom.  The  dirt  of  the  schoolroom  was  ground  into  the 
oily  surface  until  it  formed  a  thick  and  unpleasant  layer 
upon  the  floor.  Footsteps  of  children  walking  back  and  forth 
were  clearly  shown  upon  the  surface.  In  many  communities 
the  unpleasant  results  of  early  oilings  were  so  serious  that 
any  suggestion  of  using  oil  will  even  now  bring  most  emphatic 
protest  from  teachers,  principals,  and  janitors  alike. 


1M  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

The  oil  selected  for  schoolroom  use  should  be  a  light  oil, 
of  rather  thin  consistency.  Most  light  oils  may  be  applied 
in  either  of  two  ways.  They  may  be  spread  over  the  floors 
by  means  of  a  brush  holding  an  oil  reservoir  or  they  may 
be  sprayed  over  the  floor  by  an  atomizer.  Before  the  first 
application  the  schoolroom  floor  should  be  thoroughly  washed 
and  dried.  The  oil  should  then  be  applied  to  every  part  of 
the  surface  in  a  thin  layer,  and  thoroughly  rubbed  in  with 
woolen  cloths.  After  this  the  room  should  be  closed,  and 
if  possible  the  floor  should  not  be  used  for  from  five  to  ten 
days.  This  means  that  such  a  first  application  must  be 
made  either  in  the  summer,  Christmas  vacation,  or  the 
spring  holidays.  Even  when  heavy  oils  are  used,  if  they 
are  applied  very  sparingly  and  well  rubbed  in,  most  of  the 
trouble  connected  with  them  will  disappear. 

After  the  initial  oiling  water  should  never  be  applied  to 
the  floor.  It  will  usually  be  found  that  the  dust  on  the  floor 
gathers  to  itself  just  enough  oil  to  keep  it  from  rising;  that 
is,  it  acts  as  a  dustless  sweeping  compound.  The  dust  so 
weighted  may  be  gathered  in  a  pile  by  a  soft  bristle  brush, 
easily  collected,  and  removed  from  the  room.  It  is  fre- 
quently found  desirable  to  use  the  lighter  oils  in  connection 
with  a  spray  about  once  a  week,  very  sparingly  in  each 
room,  so  that  a  little  of  the  oil  sprayed  into  the  air  descends 
upon  the  floor  and  acts  as  an  additional  help  in  weighting 
dust. 

In  some  European  countries  floors  are  covered  with  a  thin 
preparation  of  tar  instead  of  oil.  Tar  catches  the  dust  in 
much  the  same  way  that  the  oiled  floor  does.  It  is  easily 
cleaned,  cheap,  and  antiseptic.  It  is  very  easily  applied, 
since  it  is  merely  coal  tar  laid  on  thinly  while  hot,  and  allowed 
to  cool.  The  chief  argument  against  the  use  of  the  tarred 
floor  is  that  it  is  dark,  unpleasant  to  look  at,  and  frequently 
has  a  disagreeable  odor  which  lasts  for  a  long  time. 


KEEPING  THE  SCIIOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  105 

Cleaning  walls  and  blackboards.  It  should  be  possible 
to  wash  the  schoolroom  walls.  Sucii  washing  is  rarely  nec- 
essary, but,  especially  when  contagious  disease  is  present, 
may  sometimes  be  desirable.  Usually  dustless  dusters  such 
as  those  already  described  may  be  used  on  the  parts  of  the 
walls  within  ordinary  reach.  Such  dusting  should  be  done 
about  once  every  month. 

Blackboards  are  best  cleaned  by  dry  erasers  of  good  qual- 
ity. They  should  usually  be  washed  only  when  the  marks 
of  chalk  cannot  be  removed  in  any  other  way.  Frequent 
washing  hurts  all  but  the  very  best  grade  of  slate  or  glass 
blackboards.  When  boards  are  washed,  they  should  be 
quickly  rubbed  dry  with  a  woolen  cloth.  A  very  slightly 
dampened  square  of  cheesecloth  will  often  be  found  effec- 
tive in  removing  the  gray  appearance  left  by  chalk.  Ileal 
washing  need  only  be  rarely  resorted  to,  and  soap  should 
never  be  used  because  it  leaves  an  oily  surface  upon  which 
the  chalk  will  not  write.  Chalk  trays  should  be  cleaned 
twice  a  day  in  rooms  where  the  boards  are  frequently  used. 
The  chalk  should  be  carefully  collected  from  the  trays  by 
means  of  dampened  cloths.  At  the  end  of  each  school  day 
the  erasers  should  be  removed  from  all  classrooms  and 
cleaned.  Such  cleaning  should  never  be  done  in  the  old- 
fashioned  method  described  in  an  earlier  chapter,  by  which 
children  are  given  the  privilege  of  cleaning  erasers  as  a  re- 
ward of  merit,  and  when  school  is  over  stand  by  an  open 
window  beating  erasers  together,  two  and  two,  with  the 
chalk  dust  blowing  straight  back  into  the  room  and  into  the 
lungs  of  the  pupil.  There  are  many  mechanical  machines 
on  the  market  in  which  erasers  can  be  placed  in  large  quan- 
tities and  rapidly  cleaned.  For  all  but  the  smallest  and 
most  poverty-stricken  schools  it  is  exceedingly  desirable 
that  some  such  machine  be  secured.  If  erasers  must  be 
cleaned  by  hand  the  work  should  be  done  by  an  adult  person 


196  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

outdoors,  and  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  school- 
room. 

Keeping  toilets  clean.  Since  many  of  our  most  serious 
disease  germs  are  found  in  toilet-rooms,  the  cleaning  of  these 
rooms  assumes  particular  importance.  This  would  be  some- 
what less  true  were  toilet-rooms  built  as  they  should  be, 
facing  the  south  and  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  the 
greater  part  of  the  school  day.  Unfortunately  it  has  long 
been  the  rule,  and  still  is  in  many  places,  to  put  the  toilet- 
rooms  in  that  part  of  the  basement  which  is  not  wanted  for 
other  purposes.  All  too  frequently  the  toilet-rooms  face 
north  and  have  such  small  windows  that  even  were  the  sun 
on  that  side  of  the  building,  the  rays  would  rarely  be  ad- 
mitted. The  walls  of  the  toilet-room  should  be  made  so 
that  they  can  be  washed  down  with  hose.  This  means  that 
all  toilet-room  walls  and  ceilings  should  have  a  glazed 
surface;  and  that  the  floor  of  the  toilet-room  should  slant  in 
such  a  way  that  water  will  readily  run  off  into  a  drain.  If 
toilet-rooms  are  so  constructed,  it  will  be  a  comparatively 
easy  matter  to  wash  down  walls,  ceilings,  and  floors  with  a 
hose  once  a  week. 

The  toilet  fixtures  themselves  should  receive  much  more 
frequent  attention.  It  is  probably  not  too  much  to  demand 
that  at  the  close  of  every  school  day  the  toilet-seat,  the 
handle  of  the  toilet-door,  toilet-chain,  and  handle  of  the 
main  door  leading  to  the  toilet-room  should  all  be  washed 
with  a  germicidal  preparation,  such  as  carbolic  acid,  formal- 
dehyde, or  the  like.  It  is  in  the  toilet-room  more  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  building  that  virulent  germs  are  freely 
deposited  on  surfaces  likely  to  be  touched  by  other  children 
and  unexposed  to  the  germicidal  properties  of  sunshine  and 
air.  Until  toilet-rooms  are  properly  built,  their  cleaning 
should  receive  exceedingly  careful  attention. 

Other  parts  of  the  building.   Where  oiled  floors  are  used 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  197 

the  desks  and  chairs  of  each  classroom  should  be  dusted 
once  a  week.  In  cases  where  dry  sweeping  is  still  the  meth<  id, 
such  dusting  should  occur  after  every  sweeping.  Halls, 
entrances,  stairs,  and  cloak-rooms  should  all  be  swept  at 
the  close  of  each  day.  Sewing,  cooking,  manual-training, 
and  other  rooms  where  special  dirt  is  likely  to  occur  should 
be  swept  after  each  class  period.  In  some  cases  this  work 
is  profitably  attended  to  by  the  students  in  the  classes. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  in  the  open-air  classes  with 
children  who  may  be  affected  by  the  first  stages  of  tuber- 
culosis. Receptacles  should  be  provided  into  which  these 
children  may  spit,  and  special  care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  room  is  flooded  with  sunshine  each  day. 

In  cases  where  contagious  disease  has  been  discovered  in 
the  classrooms,  it  is  probably  well  to  wash  the  surround- 
ing floor  and  the  desk  and  chair  with  an  antiseptic  solu- 
tion before  allowing  any  other  child  to  sit  there. 

Cleaning  the  windows.  It  is  almost  universally  true  that 
schoolroom  windows  are  not  washed  with  sufficient  fre- 
quency. When  we  think  about  the  importance  of  lighting 
in  the  classroom,  we  must  realize  that  it  is  of  little  use  to 
provide  specified  amounts  of  glass  area  as  compared  with 
floor  area,  unless  that  glass  be  kept  clean  after  it  is  put  in. 
In  most  systems  it  is  the  custom  to  wash  windows  three 
times  a  year.  This  is  rarely  enough.  The  actual  rules  must 
vary  with  the  locality.  It  is  entirely  conceivable  that  in  cer- 
tain of  our  most  smoky  manufacturing  cities  the  class-room 
windows  should  be  washed  on  the  outside  every  day;  and 
it  is  certainly  true  that  in  most  cities  and  towns  windows 
should  be  washed  at  least  every  two  weeks.  If  it  is  sug- 
gested to  the  average  janitor  that  windows  be  washed  with 
any  such  frequency,  he  will  at  once  violently  object.  It  is 
hard  enough  for  him  to  keep  the  fires  going  in  winter  and 
to  sweep  the  floors  every  day  without  having  this  extra  and 


198  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

exceedingly  tedious  job  added  to  his  routine.  The  fact 
that  the  janitor  objects,  however,  should  be  reason  not  for 
allowing  windows  to  go  dirty,  but  rather  for  providing  a 
sufficient  number  of  helpers  so  that  they  may  be  cleaned 
without  undue  hours  of  labor  on  the  part  of  any  of  the  school 
employees. 

Vacuum  cleaners.  It  is  only  within  the  past  few  years 
that  the  vacuum  cleaner  has  become  serviceable,  durable, 
and  comparatively  inexpensive.  At  the  present  time  clean- 
ers are  on  the  market  which  do  their  work  so  effectively  that 
they  may  be  regarded  as  exceedingly  desirable  for  all  new 
school  buildings.  As  is  the  case  in  the  discussion  of  oiling 
schoolroom  floors,  much  of  the  opposition  to  the  vacuum 
cleaner  has  arisen  because  either  the  tools  provided  were 
poorly  constructed  or  else  the  janitor  has  not  been  taught 
how  to  use  the  machine.  The  arguments  in  favor  of  the 
vacuum  cleaner  are  in  general  these:  When  properly  in- 
stalled and  of  good  type  such  cleaners  remove  the  dirt 
entirely  from  the  rooms  instead  of  allowing  it  to  stay  and 
settle  back  after  the  air  has  become  quiet.  They  do  not  stir 
up  dust  during  the  process.  The  room  need  only  be  cleaned 
once.  No  dusting  need  follow.  Walls  and  ceiling  may  be 
cleaned  without  marring  the  surface,  and  without  the  stain 
which  often  comes  with  the  use  of  soap  and  water.  Where 
floors  are  old  and  cracks  are  wide,  the  dust  may  be  removed 
from  cracks  and  crevices,  as  well  as  from  the  outer  surface. 
Vacuum  cleaners  can  and  should  prove  a  great  saving  to  the 
school  janitor.  As  experimentation  continues  and  new  tools 
are  devised  especially  for  classroom  purposes,  this  will  be- 
come increasingly  true. 

Types  of  vacuum  cleaners.  There  are  various  types  of 
vacuum  cleaners,  but  all  may  be  divided  into  two  general 
groups,  the  portable  and  the  stationary  outfits.  Portable 
machines  are  designed  to  be  operated  by  hand,  or  by  small 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  199 

motors  attached  to  the  electric  light  socket.  The  former  are 
especially  recommended  by  manufacturers  to  the  school 
committees  of  rural  districts,  where  the  schools  are  not  fur- 
nished with  electric  light  systems  and  cannot  very  easily 
run  their  own  dynamos.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that, 
while  there  are  a  few  possible  exceptions,  most  vacuum 
cleaners  of  the  portable  type  are  neither  durable  nor  effec- 
tive. They  are  apt  to  return  the  air  only  partly  cleaned 
to  the  room  from  which  it  was  taken.  Usually  they  have  not 
sufficient  suction  power  to  pick  up  all  the  dirt  on  the  floor. 

Stationary  outfits  are  usually  more  expensive  than  the 
portable.  They  must  be  installed  in  the  lowest  story  in  the 
building,  and  the  building  must  then  be  piped  throughout. 
This  means  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  install  a  station- 
ary outfit  in  old  buildings.  The  exhaust  of  the  stationary 
vacuum  cleaner  is  usually  through  the  main  chimney.  A 
powerful  electric  motor  or  other  driving  mechanism  runs 
the  vacuum-producing  pump.  The  pump  draws  air  through 
pipes  containing  filters  for  straining  out  the  dirt.  Exhaust 
air  is  drawn  into  the  chimney.  At  regular  intervals  the 
heavier  dirt  which  is  collected  is  removed  from  the  tank  by 
hand.  Cleaners  vary  from  one  sweeper  to  twelve  sweepers 
or  larger,  depending  on  the  number  of  men  who  can  work 
at  once.  Most  schools  need  only  a  one-  or  two-sweeper  plant. 

While  vacuum  cleaners  vary  widely  in  particular  designs 
they  usually  belong  to  one  of  four  distinct  types.  The  first 
is  the  turbine  type.  Here  suction  is  produced  by  one  or  more 
disc  fans  or  propeller  steel  blades  mounted  on  a  shaft,  with 
baffle  plates  between  the  blades.  The  whole  is  enclosed  in  a 
cylinder.  Such  a  pump  runs  at  very  high  speed,  and  sucks 
the  air  through  much  on  the  screw  principle.  The  dust  is 
separated  by  centrifugal  force.  These  pumps  are  very  simple 
in  construction  and  durable,  but  must  be  run  at  high  speed. 

The  second  type  of  pump  is  known  as  the  rotary  pump. 


200  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

It  is  very  similar  to  the  turbine  in  general  principle.  An 
eccentrically  mounted  shaft  is  provided  with  oscillating 
blades,  and  the  whole  is  included  in  an  outer  casing.  It  is 
possible  to  run  the  rotary  pump  at  very  low  speed  and  secure 
strong  suction.  However,  it  has  many  bearing  surfaces  and 
is  liable  to  injury.  Cleaners  of  this  type  are  usually  fitted 
with  fabric  bags  for  dust  separators,  which  become  clogged, 
tear,  and  otherwise  interfere  with  the  working  of  the  pump. 
Water  filters  are  sometimes  added,  and  are  very  effective, 
but  also  expensive  and  apt  to  get  out  of  order. 

The  third  type  of  vacuum  cleaner  is  provided  with  a 
piston  pump.  Instead  of  screwing  the  air  around  and 
around,  this  pump  rather  draws  it  up;  that  is,  it  has  a  recip- 
rocating rather  than  a  rotary  motion.  Piston  pump  cleaners 
are  usually  very  complicated  and  expensive.  They  are  highly 
efficient,  but  apt  to  get  out  of  order.  There  is  need  for  a 
single-acting  piston  pump  of  simple  valve  design  for  one- 
unit  sweepers  in  the  smaller  schools,  but  at  present  such  a 
plant  is  difficult  to  secure. 

The  fourth  type  of  vacuum  cleaner  is  on  the  principle  of 
a  steam  injector.  It  is  very  simple,  and  there  are  no  moving 
parts.  Where  steam  is  always  available  at  ordinary  pres- 
sures for  power  purposes,  the  steam  injector  cleaner  pro- 
duces satisfactory  results.  Where  steam  has  to  be  especially 
generated  for  the  purpose,  however,  it  becomes  too  expen- 
sive for  ordinary  school  use. 

Much  of  the  success  of  a  newly  installed  vacuum  cleaning 
plant  depends  upon  the  skill  with  which  pipes  are  inserted 
within  the  walls  of  the  building  to  reach  the  various  parts. 
It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  find,  for  example,  even  in 
new  buildings,  that  the  cocks  to  which  hose  can  be  attached 
for  vacuum  cleaning  are  only  two  in  number,  and  placed 
at  the  extreme  ends  of  the  corridors.  This  means  that  in 
order  to  clean  rooms  along  the  sides  it  is  usually  necessary 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  201 

for  two  men  to  work  at  one  time,  one  handling  the  nozzle 
and  the  other  helping  to  carry  the  long  length  of  wire- 
wound  hose.  Piping  should  be  so  designed  that  every  part 
of  the  building  is  within  fifty  feet  of  a  hose  outlet,  so  that 
no  section  of  hose  will  be  too  heavy  for  one  man  to  handle 
alone.  The  pipes  should  be  arranged  in  vertical  risers  with 
few  horizontal  runs,  with  long  sweeps  of  drainage  fittings  - 
having  shoulders  of  smooth  hose.  Even  slight  roughnesses 
on  the  inside  of  the  pipes  will  cause  clogging  and  render  the 
cleaning  service  inefficient.  Pipes  should  never  be  less  than 
one  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter. 

Hose  sections  should  be  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  feet 
long,  about  one  and  one-quarter  inches  in  diameter,  and 
should  be  stiffened  with  spiral  wire,  because  otherwise  they 
are  apt  to  collapse  with  the  force  of  suction.  Air-tight  coup- 
lings should  be  provided. 

Tools  for  vacuum  cleaning.    For  cleaning  bare  floors  tools 
should  be  from  ten  to  eighteen  inches  long,  and  about  three 
inches  wide.    Felt  pads  or  bristles  prevent  too  great  admis- 
sion of  air  and  localize  the  inrush.  Circular  brushes  with  long 
bristles  and  a  leather  cuff  will  frequently  be  found  useful 
for  cleaning  walls  and  chalk  trays.  New  tools  are  constantly 
being  invented,  and  careful  experiment  should  be  made  be- 
fore final  decision.    There  are,  for  example,  tools  on  the 
market  which  are  self-propelling,  so  that  the  janitor  is  able 
to  stand  at  the  front  of  the  room  and  direct  the  brush  in 
such  a  way  that  it  travels  to  the  back  of  the  room  and  returns 
to  where  he  is  standing.  Such  devices  as  this  make  it  possible 
for  the  janitor  to  clean  rooms  very  much  more  speedily  than 
would  otherwise  be  the  case.    In  choosing  tools  for  vacuum 
cleaning  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  clear  opening 
through  the  tool  is  not  less  than  a  half  square  inch,  as  suc- 
tion at  the  operator's  handle  through  this  size  opening  should 
be  not  less  than  two  inches  of  mercury. 


202  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

Suggestions  for  improving  service.  Before  any  striking 
changes  can  be  made  in  the  quality  of  janitorial  service  it  is 
necessary  that  a  careful  study  be  made  of  the  school  plant, 
in  order  to  see  what  changes  in  materials  and  equipment 
would  make  the  janitor's  work  easier.  For  example,  in 
buildings  already  supplied  with  high-pressure  vacuum 
cleaners  it  is  at  times  possible  to  provide  a  vacuum  attach- 
ment to  the  boiler,  so  that  the  boiler  tubes  may  be  cleared 
out  by  vacuum  power  rather  than  by  hand.  Where  the 
equipment  is  such  that  this  is  feasible,  an  immense  amount 
of  work  is  immediately  saved  for  the  janitor.  In  other  cases, 
changing  the  location  of  the  coal  bin,  providing  carts  on 
wheels,  cranes  for  carrying  heavy  loads  of  coal,  ashes,  and 
the  like,  providing  a  direct  exit  from  the  boiler-room  to  the 
outside  air,  so  that  ashes  may  be  carried  out  with  the  least 
difficulty,  and  other  similar  small  changes  may  be  made  at 
a  comparatively  low  cost. 

It  is  also  usually  possible,  by  erecting  partitions  and  some- 
times increasing  window  space,  to  board  off  a  small  office  or 
room  which  shall  be  designed  for  the  janitor's  own  use.  The 
number  of  hours  during  which  the  janitor  is  nominally  on 
duty  are  usually,  at  least  during  the  winter,  very  long.  He  is 
not  actually  busy  with  the  fires  during  all  that  time,  yet  in 
practically  all  of  our  old  schools  and  many  of  our  more 
modern  buildings  it  is  the  custom  to  assign  to  the  janitor 
only  the  cleared  space  around  the  boiler,  with  a  hook  on 
which  to  hang  his  coat.  In  most  systems  the  school  janitor 
has  many  other  duties  besides  merely  tending  to  the  heating 
of  the  school  building.  He  has  to  receive  supplies,  admit 
workmen  to  the  building,  keep  account  of  the  number  of 
hours  they  spend  on  the  job,  and  do  various  other  clerical 
tasks.  He  should  be  provided  with  a  personal  office,  prefer- 
ably opening  off  of  the  boiler-room,  in  which  should  be  a 
desk  or  table  at  which  he  can  keep  Ins  accounts,  and  some 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  CLEAN  203 

place  where  documents  may  be  filed.  This  question  has 
already  been  discussed  at  some  length  in  an  earlier  chapter, 
but  should  be  emphasized  again.  It  is  of  little  use  to  try  to 
teach  janitors  the  importance  of  their  jobs,  unless  we  first 
provide  them  with  comfortable  and  dignified  quarters. 

Careful  study  should  be  made  of  the  different  utensils  and 
materials  which  can  be  used  in  janitorial  work.  Too  many 
janitors  are  treated  in  a  way  similar  to  that  to  which  the 
wives  of  unprogressive  farmers  are  so  frequently  subjected. 
It  is  proverbial  that  much  of  the  work  on  the  farm  done 
by  women  includes  large  amounts  of  unnecessary  drudgery, 
simply  because  labor-saving  machines  which  are  on  the 
market  are  not  purchased.  It  is  too  often  true  that  even 
when  janitors  hear  of  interesting  devices  which  might  cut 
their  labor  in  half,  they  hesitate  to  speak  about  them,  be- 
cause the  tradition  has  been  established  that  requests  from 
janitors  are  not  attended  to.  Such  an  attitude  makes  for 
inefficient  service. 

As  is  the  case  with  teachers  and  most  other  laborers, 
janitors  need  careful  supervision.  They  cannot  be  expected 
to  run  a  well-organized  system  without  adequate  leadership. 
In  large  systems  the  janitors  should  be  united  in  a  depart- 
ment, with  a  good  supervisory  officer  at  its  head.  In  small 
systems  supervision  of  janitorial  work  must  often  be  com- 
bined with  other  duties,  but  supervision  of  some  sort  there 
must  be  if  efficiency  is  to  be  gained. 

Daily  cleaning  schedule.  In  most  school  systems  there  is 
some  form  of  daily  schedule  for  the  cleaning  of  school  build- 
ings. Directions  are  given  for  the  frequency  with  which 
floors  shall  be  washed,  oiled,  or  swept,  windows  washed, 
door-knobs,  stair  rails,  and  woodwork  cleaned,  walls  brushed 
down,  toilets  cleaned,  and  so  forth.  These  schedules  vary 
greatly  in  requirement  and  in  the  amount  of  specific  in- 
struction provided.   It  is  undoubtedly  desirable  that  such 


204  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

a  schedule  be  adopted  for  each  school  system,  but  it  should 
not  be  imposed  from  the  top,  except  for  certain  minimum 
requirements.  The  janitor  may  properly  be  instructed  to 
sweep  the  classrooms  each  day,  but  whether  he  shall  do  that 
in  the  morning,  at  noon,  or  at  night  is  probably  best  left  to 
his  own  decision.  Wherever  possible  the  schedule  of  clean- 
ing work  should  be  planned  and  adopted  by  the  janitors 
themselves  working  in  concert.  It  will  sometimes  be  neces- 
sary to  lay  down  certain  rules  which  must  be  followed,  but 
the  more  the  janitors  participate  in  making  these  rules  the 
greater  will  be  their  interest  in  following  them. 

Conferences  and  study  courses  for  janitor.  When  the 
efficient  superintendent  goes  to  a  new  town  wThere  the  qual- 
ity of  teaching  is  low  and  teachers  are  uninterested  in  their 
work,  one  of  the  first  things  he  does  is  to  plan  for  a  series  of 
teachers'  conferences  and  study  clubs.  He  tries  to  get  the 
teachers  working  on  different  school  problems,  and  reporting 
to  each  other  on  the  results.  He  tries  to  have  them  feel  that 
they  are  making  a  real  contribution  to  educational  knowl- 
edge, and  that  any  suggestions  they  make  will  receive  care- 
ful consideration.  In  like  manner,  if  the  quality  of  janitorial 
service  is  to  be  improved,  one  of  the  best  ways  of  securing 
that  result  is  to  awaken  the  professional  interest  of  the 
janitors  through  some  similar  organization. 

Before  very  long  there  will  probably  be  summer-school 
courses  and  evening  classes  for  school  janitors  in  which 
they  can  learn  about  different  types  of  heating  apparatus, 
school  hygiene,  and  the  like,  and  can  qualify  for  the  higher- 
grade  janitorial  licenses.  Iowa  State  College  is  already  car- 
rying on  extension  courses  of  this  kind,  with  marked  suc- 
cess. Within  the  system,  lecture  courses  and  discussion 
classes  may  profitably  be  held  by  the  janitors,  and  in  small 
communities  the  janitors  from  several  near-by  towns  may 
be  invited  to  gather  in  one  spot  for  such  discussion.    The 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLIIOUSE  CLEAN  20.3 

subjects  for  consideration  at  such  meetings  might  he,  for 
example:  "Dust  and  its  Dangers";  "How  Diseases  are 
Transmitted";  "Protecting  School  Buildings  from  Fire"; 
"Different  Types  of  Heating  Apparatus  for  School  Build- 
ings"; "Different  Methods  of  Cleaning";  '"Types  of  Vac- 
uum Cleaners";  "New  Vacuum-Cleaning  Tools";  "  Recent 
Experiments  in  Humidity  and  Ventilation." 

The  janitor  as  a  teacher.  As  the  professional  Interest  of 
the  janitors  increases  it  wTill  usually  be  found  thai  many  of 
them  at  least  are  able  to  give  very  interesting  information 
concerning  their  own  wrork.  Many  janitors  already  have  a 
strong  influence  over  the  boys  on  the  playground,  but  their 
connection  wTith  the  children  should  be  something  more 
than  that  of  monitors.  The  heating  and  ventilating  plant 
of  a  large  modern  school  is  a  very  interesting  thing,  and 
presents  opportunities  for  making  children  familiar  with  a 
phase  of  industrial  life  which  many  of  them  will  not  other- 
wise see.  Some  time  during  his  course  every  school  child 
should  visit  the  heating  plant  of  his  own  building.  These 
visits  should  be  under  the  direction  of  the  janitor,  who 
should  carefully  explain  the  workings  of  the  plant,  answer 
the  children's  questions,  and  regard  himself  as  their  teacher 
during  that  period.  In  similar  ways  the  janitor  can  be  called 
upon  to  cooperate  with  the  medical  inspector,  teacher,  ami 
nurse  in  bringing  home  to  the  children  the  simpler  phases 
of  applied  hygiene. 

In  the  upper  grades  of  some  of  our  elementary  schools 
pupils  are  regularly  appointed  as  health  officers.  This  work 
is  given  credit,  just  as  is  the  case  with  regular  school  work. 
It  includes  the  hourly  reading  of  thermometers,  weekly 
rounds  for  temperature  records,  adjustment  of  heat  sources, 
opening  of  windows,  etc.  In  the  high  schools  and  the  upper 
grades  of  the  grammar  school,  cultures  may  be  taken  from 
sweepings,  floor  surfaces,  and  so  forth,  and  examined  under 


206  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

the  microscope.  Smaller  children  may  be  taught  to  wipe 
surfaces  with  white  cloths  in  order  to  detect  dust.  Children 
in  all  the  grades  may  be  assigned  to  keep  the  yard  in  order, 
report  on  the  cleanliness  of  toilets  and  basement  playrooms, 
and  the  like.  In  the  public  high  schools  the  teachers  of 
science  may  contribute  very  largely  to  the  increased  interest 
of  teachers,  pupils,  and  janitors  in  questions  of  school  hy- 
giene by  carrying  on  experiments  with  germ  cultures,  venti- 
lation, moisture  apparatus,  and  the  like.  Whatever  work  is 
done,  it  will  usually  be  found  of  value  to  enlist  the  services 
of  the  janitor.  His  respect  for  his  own  position  will  be 
greatly  increased,  and  his  cooperation  will  usually  have  a 
wholesome  effect  on  teachers  as  well  as  on  children. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Make  a  study  of  janitors'  work  in  your  community,  to  determine  how 
jobs  compare  in  difficulty,  where  and  how  many  assistants  are  needed, 
what  changes  should  be  made  in  organization,  salaries,  buildings,  and 
equipment,  in  order  to  insure  greater  efficiency  in  janitorial  service. 

2.  Which  is  better,  for  the  school  directly  to  employ  all  janitors  and 
assistants,  or  to  pay  head  janitors  lump  sums  and  let  them  hire  and 
supervise  their  helpers? 

3.  What  sorts  of  records  should  the  janitor  keep? 

4.  "What  is  the  story  of  "Typhoid  Mary"?  What  should  be  done  about 
such  cases? 

5.  Of  how  much  value  are  sulphur  candles  and  similar  methods  for  dis- 
infection? How  should  a  classroom  be  rendered  safe  after  a  contagious 
disease  case  has  been  found  there? 

6.  If  there  is  too  much  work  for  one  janitor  to  do,  and  he  has  no  helpers, 
which  tasks  may  he  best  neglect,  and  to  which  must  he  give  most 
attention? 

7.  Report  on  findings  of  different  experiments  in  dust  analysis.  What  do 
they  imply? 

8.  Where  teachers  are  firmly  opposed  to  all  suggestions  for  oiling  floors, 
what  shall  be  done  about  it? 

9.  How  may  old  wooden  floors  be  renovated? 

10.  Make  careful  periodic  tests  to  determine  how  frequently  windows 
should  be  washed  in  your  community.  Measure  differences  in  lighting 
resulting  from  dirty  windows. 

11.  Outline  a  course  of  study  for  janitors  in  service.   What  should  a  jan- 


KEEPING  THE  SCHOOLIIOUSE  CLEAN  207 

itor  know?  How  should  he  be  taught?  Study  courses  already  being 
given,  and  suggest  desirable  changes. 
12.  Make  a  collection  of  daily  cleaning  schedules,  and  compare  require- 
ments.  Criticize. 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

American  School  Board  Journal.    (Milwaukee,  Wisconsin.) 
See  files  for  articles  on  janitor  service,  vacuum  cleaners,  etc. 

Baskerville,  C,  and  Winslow,  C.  E.  A.  "Air  Measurement  and  Experi- 
ments in  New  York  City  Schools";  in  Report  of  Educational  Inoestigth 
Hon  Committee  on  School  Inquiry  (New  York  City,  1911-13),  vol.  m, 
pp.  601-728. 

Very  interesting  and  helpful  account  of  dust  measurements. 

Chapin,  C.  V.  Sources  and  Modes  of  Infection.  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  New 

York.   (1912.) 

Exceedingly  interesting  discussion  of  contagious  disease,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  public  health  officer. 

Dresslar,  F.  B.    School  Hygiene.    The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York. 
(1913.) 
See  sections  on  cleaning  of  schoolhouses. 

Frost,  W.  D.,  and  Armstrong,  V.  A.  "Bacteriological  Tests  of  Methods  of 
Cleaning";  in  Proceedings  National  Education  Association  (1911),  p. 
985. 

Russell  Sage  Foundation,  Department  of  Child  Hygiene.  What  American 
Cities  are  Doing  for  the  Health  of  School  Children.  (New  York,  1911.) 
Report  of  inquiry  concerning  sanitation  in  schools. 


CHAPTER  XI 

MEDICAL  INSPECTION 

Medical  inspection  and  compulsory  education.  The  med- 
ical inspection  movement  has  come  as  a  direct  corollary  of 
the  principle  of  compulsory  education.  The  successful  con- 
tinuance of  any  democracy  must  in  the  long  run  depend 
upon  the  education  of  its  people.  In  order  to  insure  an  intel- 
ligent and  thoughtful  citizen-population  the  State  demands 
that  several  years  of  the  childhood  of  every  child  born 
within  its  borders  shall  be  devoted  to  gaining  a  common 
education,  and  in  order  that  this  may  be  more  successfully 
done,  it  takes  the  matter  completely  out  of  the  hands  of 
parents.  Instead^  of  having  each  one  individually  charged 
with  the  education  of  his  child,  the  State  establishes  a  public 
system  of  schools  and  makes  attendance  at  these  schools 
compulsory. 

But  having  assumed  this  great  responsibility  for  the  edu- 
cation of  its  children,  the  State  is  also  forced  to  go  one  step 
farther.  It  must  provide  that  no  physical  harm  shall  result 
to  the  children  under  its  care  through  the  enforcement  of 
the  compulsory  education  law.  It  is  on  this  basis  that  the 
State  is  justified  in  passing  regulations  for  fire  protection, 
that  children  may  not  be  subjected  to  the  danger  of  being 
burned  alive  during  school  hours.  In  the  same  way  it  es- 
tablishes minimum  standards  for  sanitation,  the  location 
of  school  buildings  free  from  dust,  noise,  odors,  and  the  like. 
Moreover,  not  only  must  it  see  to  it  that  children  are  not 
subjected  to  physical  dangers  during  their  school  attend- 
ance, but  as  a  mere  matter  of  efficiency,  if  nothing  else,  it  is 
to  the  advantage  of  the  State  to  insure  that  children  shall 


MEDICAL  INSPECTION  209 

be  in  the  best  possible  physical  shape  during  the  years  of 

school  attendance  in  order  that  they  may  take  full  advan- 
tage of  the  educational  opportunities  offered  to  them. 

The  importance  of  this  type  of  health  work  has  been 
recognized  in  the  United  States  since  the  early  days  <>t 
public  education.  But  the  matter  has  reached  an  acute 
stage  only  with  the  growth  of  our  larger  cities,  wherein  we 
now  find  sometimes  as  many  as  three,  four,  or  five  thousand 
children  gathered  during  five  hours  a  day  under  one  school 
roof.  Where  under  the  law  children  are  grouped  in  such 
vast  hordes  as  this,  the  danger  of  contagious  disease  In- 
comes very  great.  Only  constant  watchfulness  on  the  part  <  i 
school  authorities  can  avoid  constant  and  serious  waves  of 
epidemics  throughout  the  school  population. 

Origin  of  medical  inspection.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was 
the  effort  to  control  school  epidemics  which  first  led  to  the 
organized  medical  inspection  movement  as  part  of  the  edu- 
cational procedure  in  our  larger  cities.  Arrangements  were 
made  whereby  groups  of  doctors  periodically  inspected 
public  school  children,  in  order  to  make  sure  that  incipient 
cases  of  contagious  disease  should  be  detected  before  the 
critical  stage  arrived,  and  measures  taken  to  prevent  their 
being  passed  on  to  other  children.  It  is  from  this  fir>f  stage 
of  the  work,  inspection  for  contagious  disease,  that  the  pop- 
ular name  medical  inspection  comes. 

It  was  but  a  short  time  after  the  school  doctor  became  a 
recognized  factor  in  education  that  newT  and  vitally  impor- 
tant discoveries  were  made.  As  the  doctor  looked  at  tongues 
and  measured  temperatures,  he  also  could  hardly  fail  to 
notice  that  many  of  the  children  had  crooked  backs,  that 
throats  were  choked  by  enlarged  tonsils,  that  breathing  was 
interfered  with  by  adenoids.  The  work  which  began  solely 
as  inspection  for  contagious  disease  quickly  widened  to  in- 
clude inspection  for  physical  defects;  and  the  work  of  mere 


210  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

inspection  was  followed  by  organized  efforts  to  see  to  it 
that  these  defects  were  remedied.  That  is,  not  only  did  we 
seek  to  keep  one  child  from  being  a  menace  to  the  health 
of  others,  but  we  sought  to  render  every  child  free  from 
physical  defects  in  so  far  as  possible  in  order  that  he  might 
be  able  to  carry  on  his  work  without  the  heavy  handicap  of 
ill-health.  It  was  found  that  many  of  the  children  who  were 
supposedly  dull  or  feeble-minded  were  actually  partially 
blind,  or  partially  deaf,  or  suffering  most  of  the  time  from 
headaches  or  backaches.  Children  are  curiously  non-intro- 
spective persons.  They  often  fail  to  realize  it  when  anything 
serious  is  the  matter  with  them,  and  sometimes  they  regard 
a  headache  if  it  continues  all  the  time  as  a  normal  part  of 
living.  It  required  the  keen  eye  of  the  medical  inspector 
and  the  school  nurse  to  discover  that  many  of  these  children 
were  actually  in  pain  for  many  of  their  waking  hours. 

The  effort  to  remove  these  defects  resulted  in  carefully 
organized  plans  of  campaign  whereby  teachers  and  parents 
could  be  taught  the  dangers  of  physical  defects  and  various 
methods  of  helping  or  preventing  them,  and  also  in  the 
establishment  of  school  clinics  in  which  the  defects  might 
be  remedied  by  the  school  authorities.  Eye  clinics,  dental 
clinics,  food  clinics,  clinics  for  orthopedic  work,  and  even 
surgical  clinics  have  all  been  established  in  our  various 
public  school  systems.  The  medical  inspection  movement, 
which  started  in  so  narrow  a  field,  as  the  direct  result  of  the 
compulsory  education  law,  is  gradually  widening  to  include 
the  whole  subject  of  the  health  of  the  school  child. 

Present  scope  of  medical  inspection.  Medical  inspection 
of  to-day  includes  four  fields  of  endeavor:  prevention  of 
epidemics,  discovery  and  cure  of  physical  defects,  provision 
of  healthful  surroundings,  and  formation  of  correct  habits 
of  thought  and  action  in  regard  to  health.  It  is  in  these  last 
two  fields  that  new  and  most  interesting  developments  are 


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MEDICAL  INSPECTION  211 

gradually  taking  place.  The  following  quo!,! f  ion,  taken  from 
the  volume  on  Health  Work  in  the  Public  Schools,  one  of  the 
Cleveland  Education  Survey  monographs,  relates  to  the 
fourth  type  of  activity:  — 

As  a  result  of  the  work  of  doctors  and  nurses,  Cleveland's  chil- 
dren—  and  her  teachers  as  well  —  should  not  only  believe  in 
plenty  of  sleep,  but  should  go  to  bed  early;  not  only  disapprove 
of  too  much  tea  and  coffee,  but  have  strength  to  refuse  when  it  is 
offered.  Through  classes  for  the  anaemic  and  pre-tubercular  the 
public  schools  help  each  year  between  two  and  three  hundred 
children.  This  is  worth  doing,  but  they  will  render  a  far  greater 
service  to  Cleveland,  if,  in  addition,  they  succeed  in  giving  to 
eighty  thousand  children,  so  firmly  that  it  will  never  be  broken,  the 
habit  of  sleeping  winter  and  summer  with  wide-open  windov 

The  dentist,  the  oculist,  the  physician,  should  come  to  be  re- 
garded, not  as  dispensers  of  cures,  nor  sympathetic  listeners  to 
hypochondriacs,  but  as  leaders  to  whom  intelligent  people  go  in 
order  to  forestall  trouble, —  specialists  in  health  rather  than 
disease.  Leading  its  future  citizens  to  form  right  habits  of  thinking 
and  acting  in  regard  to  health  is  one  of  the  greatest  educational 
services  which  the  public  school  can  render. 

Arguments  against  medical  inspection.  As  is  the  a 
with  most  educational  innovations,  the  introduction  of 
medical  inspection  into  the  public  schools  met  with  op- 
position. It  was  claimed  that  any  system  that  provided 
inspection  by  physicians  at  public  expense  was  not  demo- 
cratic. In  the  first  place,  it  compelled  all  people  to  pay  for 
the  care  which  individual  parents  should  give  their  children. 
In  the  second  place,  it  submitted  all  children  to  inspection 
whether  their  parents  wished  them  to  be  inspected  or 
not.  Each  of  these  items  was  considered  an  infringement  of 
personal  liberties.  The  answer  to  these  arguments  is  that 
medical  inspection  is  distinctly  a  democratic  movement. 
It  is  the  natural  outcome  of  compulsory  education  legisla- 
tion. As  was  stated  in  earlier  paragraphs,  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  State  not  only  to  see  that  children  are  provided  with 


212  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

opportunities  for  an  education,  but  also  that  they  are  in  the 
best  physical  condition  possible  in  order  that  they  may  take 
full  advantage  of  such  opportunities.  Public  taxation  to 
support  public  medical  inspection  is  justifiable  on  exactly 
the  same  grounds  that  public  taxation  is  justifiable  in  order 
to  support  public  education. 

Again  the  argument  is  given  that  such  a  movement  tres- 
passes upon  private  domain.  Medical  inspection  is  pecu- 
liarly a  personal  matter.  It  is  something  to  which  individ- 
ual parents  should  attend.  Compulsory  inspection  intrudes 
upon  the  privacy  of  the  individual.  The  person  who  raises 
this  objection  has  either  an  entirely  erroneous  conception 
of  the  work  of  the  medical  inspector,  or  is  suffering  from 
a  peculiar  ingrowing  sense  of  modesty.  Field  doctors  and 
nurses  are  mature  and  well-bred  persons;  and  where  women 
doctors  are  assigned  to  work  with  high-school  girls  there  is 
little  danger  of  sensibilities  Ifeing  offended.  The  practice 
which  is  sometimes  followed  of  assigning  medical  inspection 
work  to  young  students  in  medical  colleges  is  open,  per- 
haps, to  unfavorable  criticism,  but  troubles  arising  from  this 
source  are  very  rare.  Perhaps  it  is  a  good  plan,  whenever 
it  is  necessary,  to  have  the  child  remove  part  or  all  of  the 
clothing,  to  have  one  of  the  parents  present.  Most  physi- 
cal examinations  can  be  carried  on  merely  by  inspecting 
the  child  as  he  stands,  without  asking  him  to  remove  any 
clothing.  Under  such  conditions,  there  can  be  little  ground 
for  resentment  or  feeling  that  personal  rights  have  been 
infringed,  when  the  school  doctor  calls  to  the  attention  of 
parents  defects  in  their  own  child. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  objection  to  medical  inspection 
in  the  public  schools  is  that  it  tends  to  do  away  with  private 
initiative.  This  argument  is  always  raised  whenever  any 
public  agency  assumes  the  responsibility  which  has  formerly 
been  carried  by  individuals  and  private  citizens.     In  the 


MEDICAL  INSPECTION  213 

case  of  medical  inspection  as  it  is  now  carried  on  in  most  of 
our  cities  there  is  little  ground  for  such  an  objection,  because 
the  doctors  and  nurses  do  no  more  than  call  to  the  attention 
of  the  parents  defects  which  need  remedying.  They  rarely 
appeal  to  legal  authorities,  or  in  any  other  way  endeavor  to 
make  correction  of  these  defects  obligatory  upon  the  parents. 
They  rather  use  all  their  influence  in  order  to  persuade 
or  educate  parents  to  the  importance  of  remedying  defects 
in  their  children  while  there  is  yet  opportunity.  Medical 
inspection  is  essentially  an  educational  procedure.  Doc- 
tor and  nurse  usually  endeavor  to  place  upon  the  parents' 
shoulders  full  responsibility  for  taking  care  of  the  health 
of  their  children.  They  stimulate  private  initiative  rather 
than  retard  it. 

In  most  communities  there  also  will  be  some  opposition 
to  the  medical  inspection  movement  on  religious  grounds. 
There  are  many  people  who  honestly  believe  that  disease  is 
spiritual  rather  than  physical,  and  they  object  to  any 
medical  work  because  they  feel  that  it  encourages  wrong 
methods  of  thinking.  In  answer  to  these  people  it  can  only 
be  said  that  the  weight  of  experience  and  all  medical  science 
is  heavily  against  them.  Until  such  objectors  can  prove  a 
better  case  than  they  have  so  far  been  able  to  do,  they  have 
no  valid  ground  for  objecting  to  an  educational  procedure 
which  assumes  that  disease  and  ill-health  are  real  and  should 
be  combated.  Except  in  the  case  of  contagious  disea 
which  in  most  cities  is  already  covered  by  law,  parents  are 
not  usually  forced  to  follow  the  suggestions  of  the  school 
nurse  or  doctor.  There  are  many  people  who  feel  that  the 
child  should  be  saved  from  its  parents  in  such  a  case,  but 
as  yet  there  is  little  legislation  to  that  effect.  Some  school 
doctors  have  stated  that  it  is  better  to  let  one  child  suffer 
through  the  neglect  of  its  parents  than  it  would  be  to  appeal 
to  force,  and  thereby  run  the  risk  of  losing  the  friendly  atti- 


2U  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

tude  and  sj^rnpathy  of  the  other  parents  of  the  community. 
For  non-contagious  diseases  force  is  probably  justifiable 
only  when  arguments  and  persuasion  fail. 

Administration  of  a  department  of  school  hygiene.  The 
various  phases  of  health  activity  have  grown  up  separately, 
and  at  different  times.  It  is  only  very  recently  that  we  have 
begun  to  realize  that  the  problems  of  medical  supervision, 
physical  education,  playground  work,  school  feeding,  health 
classes  for  children,  teachers,  janitors,  and  parents,  and  the 
physical  and  mental  examination  of  children  admitted  to 
the  special  classes  are  all  properly  related  activities  of  the 
one  general  department  of  child  hygiene,  and  should  there- 
fore be  under  the  immediate  direction  of  one  responsible 
head.  The  director  of  hygiene  should  have  the  same  rank  as 
associate  superintendent.  He  should  be  a  doctor  of  medicine, 
and  in  addition  should  have  had  special  training  and  experi- 
ence with  educational  problems.  The  school  physicians  and 
nurses,  supervisors  of  physical  training,  playground  direc- 
tors, supervisors  of  school  lunches,  and  the  school  psycholo- 
gist and  his  assistants  should  all  be  under  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  chief  of  the  department  of  hygiene. 

It  will  be  noted  that  all  of  these  activities  are  being  as- 
signed to  the  regular  school  department.  When  medical 
inspection  was  first  inaugurated  in  many  cities,  it  was  under 
the  direction  of  the  local  board  of  health.  As  the  work  grew, 
it  became  evident  that  the  field  properly  included  something 
more  than  mere  inspection  for  contagious  diseases.  The 
work  of  doctors  and  nurses  resembles  the  work  of  teachers 
rather  than  that  of  policemen,  and  it  became  speedily  evi- 
dent that  medical  inspection  was  primarily  an  educational 
matter,  and  could  properly  be  handled  only  by  the  educa- 
tional authorities  under  the  supervision  of  the  school  super- 
intendent. There  are  still  some  communities  in  the  country 
where  the  local  board  of  health  has  charge  of  the  medical 


MEDICAL  INSPECTION  215 

inspection  of  the  school  children,  but  in  general  the  tendency 
is  strongly  in  the  other  direction.  The  local  hoard  of  health 
may  properly  undertake  inspection  for  contagious  dia 
but  in  the  other  lines  of  work  which  occupy  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  of  school  doctors  and  nurses  the  board  of 
health  cannot  be  expected  to  render  efficient  service.  Medi- 
cal inspection  of  schools  is  an  educational  matter. 

Physicians.  Directly  subordinate  to  the  director  of  school 
hygiene  there  should  be  in  large  cities  a  chief  medical  in- 
spector. In  small  cities  the  regular  staff  of  school  physicians 
may  be  immediately  under  the  director.  School  physicians 
should  be  mature  men  or  women,  thoroughly  trained  in 
medical  schools,  and  possessing  in  addition  considerable 
knowledge  of  public  school  matters.  In  the  course  of  time 
provision  will  undoubtedly  be  made  in  the  leading  medical 
colleges  for  training  in  public  school  work.  At  present  it  is 
necessary  to  secure  doctors  from  various  sources  who  have 
had  experience  of  this  kind  after  leaving  school.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  these  physicians,  and  two 
common  dangers  should  be  avoided.  In  the  first  place,  they 
should  not  be  new,  young  students,  fresh  from  medical 
school.  People  of  this  type  are  not  apt  to  be  received  with 
favor  by  parents  of  school  children.  The  medical  inspector 
holds  a  difficult  position,  and  should  have  considerable  poise 
and  experience.  On  the  other  hand,  he  should  not  be  an 
elderly  man  who  has  gradually  become  unfit  for  practical  ser- 
vice elsewhere,  and  so  is  shunted  off  on  the  public  schools. 

The  chief  medical  inspector  should  watch  his  assistants 
rather  carefully,  in  order  to  note  how  well  they  get  along 
with  teachers  and  children.  A  doctor  may  be  well  equipped 
in  professional  knowledge  and  still  fail  as  a  school  doctor 
because  he  is  unable  to  handle  people.  One  of  the  biggest 
contributions  which  medical  inspection  in  schools  can  make 
is  to  train  children  in  the  habit  of  consulting  physicians 


21G  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

whenever  anything  is  wrong.  The  school  physician  must 
inspire  confidence  on  the  part  of  the  children. 

Nurses.  In  addition  to  the  corps  of  physicians  there 
should  be  a  relatively  large  number  of  highly  trained,  skill- 
ful nurses.  These  nurses  should,  in  general,  be  registered 
nurses,  and  should  be  paid  on  the  regular  wage  basis  of 
other  registered  nurses  in  the  community.  The  proportion 
of  nurses  to  doctors  will  vary  in  different  communities.  In 
general  it  may  safely  be  said  that  the  nurse  is  the  more 
important  person.  She  is  able  to  give  greater  service  for  the 
same  amount  of  time  and  money.  If  choice  must,  therefore, 
be  made,  nurses  should  be  secured  rather  than  extra  doctors. 
The  properly  trained  school  nurse  under  supervision  is 
entirely  capable  of  making  preliminary  diagnosis  of  most 
forms  of  contagious  disease,  and  of  making  the  routine 
physical  examination  of  throat,  lungs,  heart,  etc.  She  is  as 
capable  as  the  physician  in  giving  treatment  for  small  cuts, 
bruises,  etc.,  examining  vaccination  marks,  and  the  like. 
Probably  the  most  desirable  plan  is  to  have  a  corps  of  nurses 
sufficiently  large  to  take  over  almost  entirely  the  routine 
examination  of  children  for  physical  defects  and  contagious 
diseases.  They  should  also  be  charged  with  home  visiting 
and  most  of  the  educational  work  of  the  school  which  has 
to  do  with  toothbrush  drills,  and  the  like. 

There  should  be  at  least  one  general  school  physician 
charged  with  the  direct  oversight  of  the  work  done  by  the 
nurses.  In  addition  there  should  be  special  physicians  for 
such  matters  as  cannot  properly  be  handled  by  the  regis- 
tered nurse.  For  example,  there  should  be  in  every  large 
system  one  or  more  oculists  who  give  their  entire  time  to 
examining  the  eyes  of  school  children.  In  small  cities  ar- 
rangements should  be  made  so  that  a  school  oculist  is  avail- 
able on  part  time.  There  should  also  be  a  physician  who 
makes  a  specialty  of  nose,  throat,  and  ear  cases,  and  others 


MEDICAL  INSPECTION  217 

who  are  especially  skilled  in  diagnosis  of  diseases,  particu- 
larly those  having  to  do  with  the  hearl  and  Lungs.  In  every 
city  system  there  should  be  at  least  one  full-time  dentist. 
Dentistry,  in  fact,  is  one  of  the  most  import  ant  forms  of 
medical  work  for  public  school  children,  and  one  most 
frequently  neglected. 

The  chief  of  the  hygiene  department  should  give  all  his 
time  to  the  work.  In  large  systems,  where  there  is  a  chief 
medical  inspector,  he  also  should  be  on  full  time.  The 
amount  of  time  given  by  the  special  physicians  just  noted 
will  depend  on  the  size  of  the  system.  In  large  cities  it  is 
probably  desirable  to  have  an  especially  skilled  physician 
in  these  branches  giving  full  time  to  school  work.  The 
nurses  should  always  be  on  full  time.  They  should  be  hired 
for  twelve  months  in  the  year,  but  be  given  one  month's 
vacation  during  the  summer.  Under  the  plan  just  outlined 
there  should  be  a  sufficient  number  of  nurses  so  that  no  one 
will  have  more  than  two  thousand  children  to  take  care  of. 
It  would  be  distinctly  better  were  the  number  decreased 
to  one  thousand. 

In  the  case  of  both  physicians  and  nurses  it  is  essential 
that  the  rate  of  remuneration  be  such  that  good  service 
can  be  secured.  It  is  usually  a  mistake  to  accept  volunteer 
service,  or  that  given  at  less  than  the  regular  rate.  Such 
arrangements  may  be  good  for  short  periods,  while  the  sys- 
tem is  at  first  being  tried  out,  but  in  the  long  rim  it  will  be 
found  that  the  work  suffers  when  run  on  a  charity  basis. 
If  physicians  are  secured  on  full  time  they  should  be  paid 
salaries  large  enough  to  warrant  them  in  devoting  their  best 
thought  and  energy  to  school  service.  Under  the  plan  here 
outlined  only  a  few  physicians  will  be  necessary,  but  they 
should  be  of  thoroughly  high  grade. 

In  the  smaller  systems,  where  fewer  people  can  be  em- 
ployed, there  should  be  one  physician  in  general  charge 


218  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

of  the  work.  Some  arrangement  should  be  made  whereby 
the  services  of  other  specialists  could  be  secured  for  special 
cases  when  needed.  But  where  funds  are  scarce  the  chief 
reliance  should  be  placed  upon  a  fairly  large  and  thoroughly 
efficient  corps  of  nurses.  The  State  also  should  be  active  in 
the  matter,  and  a  State  department  of  child  welfare  should 
be  organized,  with  State  supervisors  supervising  and  en- 
couraging the  different  phases  of  child  health  and  child 
welfare  work  throughout  the  State. 

Inspection.  Inspection  may  be  made  of  whole  classes  at 
a  time,  or  of  individuals.  It  is  probably  wise  to  have 
general  class  inspections  frequently  throughout  each  term, 
and  immediately  after  each  vacation,  to  detect  incipient 
disease.  During  these  inspections  the  physician  or  nurse 
visits  the  classroom  and  walks  rapidly  up  and  down  the 
aisles  looking  for  signs  of  colds,  fever,  or  other  preliminary 
symptoms  of  contagious  disease.  If  such  routine  inspection 
is  made  after  every  vacation,  the  danger  of  spreading  epi- 
demics is  greatly  lessened. 

In  addition  to  the  classroom  inspection,  there  should  be  a 
more  careful  examination  of  every  child  in  the  system  at  least 
once  a  year,  in  order  to  detect  physical  defects,  such  as  deaf- 
ness, poor  eyesight,  incipient  tuberculosis,  heart  trouble,  hy- 
pertrophied  tonsils  or  adenoids,  spinal  curvature,  and  the  like. 

In  addition  to  the  classroom  and  individual  examination, 
teachers  should  be  taught  to  recognize  the  preliminary 
symptoms  of  many  of  the  commoner  diseases.  They  should 
be  instructed  how  to  apply  the  simpler  tests  of  hearing 
and  eyesight.  Such  instruction  is  of  value  partly  in  order 
to  enable  the  teacher  to  assist  the  school  nurse  and  physi- 
cian in  locating  difficult  cases,  and  largely  in  order  to  give 
her  an  understanding  of  the  importance  of  medical  inspec- 
tion and  the  part  that  physical  handicaps  play  in  the 
problem  of  backward  children, 


MEDICAL  INSPECTION  210 

Records.  A  cumulative  record  system  should  be  installed 
by  the  medical  inspection  department  in  every  school. 
When  the  child  enters  school  he  should  be  given  a  card. 
After  every  yearly  individual  examination,  and  such  other 
examinations  as  are  given  him  during  the  year,  a  record 
of  the  result  should  be  entered  upon  this  cumulative  card. 
The  card  should  follow  the  child  wherever  he  goes,  from 
grade  to  grade,  from  school  to  school,  and  from  city  to  city. 
It  should  be  kept  on  the  teacher's  desk,  and  should  be  sent 
by  her  to  the  medical  inspector  whenever  the  child  is  sent 
for  an  examination.  In  this  way  the  teacher  is  given  a  com- 
plete record  of  the  child's  physical  history  and  the  informa- 
tion therein  contained  frequently  makes  her  better  able  to 
deal  with  the  particular  problem  the  child  presents.  These 
medical  inspection  records  should  contain  spaces  not  only 
for  defects  found,  but  for  defects  remedied,  and  the  cards 
should  be  so  arranged  that  failure  to  follow  up  or  remedy 
defects  will  be  clearly  noted. 

Clinics.  Every  school  building  should  have  a  small  room 
set  apart  for  the  use  of  doctors  and  nurses.  This  room  should 
be  equipped  as  noted  in  chapter  III.  Regular  hours  should 
be  posted  at  each  school,  showing  the  time  when  the  nurse 
will  be  there  to  give  simple  treatment  for  minor  ailments, 
such  as  boils,  ringworm,  and  the  like.  In  certain  of  our 
more  successful  city  systems  these  hours  have  been  open  to 
the  parents  of  the  children,  and  in  many  of  the  poorer  dis- 
tricts fathers  and  mothers  come  in  and  bring  their  smaller 
children  for  advice,  and  even  in  some  cases  for  simple  treat- 
ment. In  this  way  the  work  of  the  medical  inspector  reaches 
out  to  the  entire  family,  and  the  cordial  cooperation  of  the 
neighborhood  is  gained.     Such  a  plan  has  real  educative 

value. 

In  addition  to  these  simple  school  dispensaries  there 
should  be  one  or  more  school  clinics  depending  on  the  size  of 


ooo  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

the  system  and  the  public  clinics  at  hand.  Most  systems, 
for  example,  will  find  it  necessary  to  have  one  or  more  well- 
equipped  dental  clinics,  where  children's  teeth  may  be  put 
in  order.  In  larger  systems  the  eye  clinic  is  becoming  a  very 
real  necessity,  and  ear,  nose,  throat,  surgical,  and  orthopedic 
clinics  are  sometimes  found.  In  addition,  in  most  large  or 
fairly  large  cities,  there  will  be  found  public  clinics  or  dis- 
pensaries whose  services  may  be  utilized  for  school  purposes. 
Local  hospitals  are  usually  glad  to  cooperate. 

Follow-up  work.  It  is  of  little  value  merely  to  discover 
defects.  It  is  of  immense  value  to  see  that  such  defects  as 
are  discovered  are  remedied.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
part  of  the  work  to  be  done  by  school  physicians  and  nurses 
is  in  the  follow-up  campaign.  Thereby  an  endeavor  is  made 
to  persuade  parents  of  the  importance  of  attending  to  their 
children's  physical  handicaps.  There  are  three  general 
phases  of  follow-up  work.  In  the  first  place,  every  time  some 
important  physical  defect  is  discovered,  a  notice  is  sent  to 
the  parents  of  the  children.  This  notice  explains  the  exist- 
ence of  the  defect,  gives  a  brief  statement  as  to  its  nature 
and  its  importance,  and  urges  the  parent  to  consult  his 
own  physician  as  to  the  wisest  treatment.  When  carefully 
worded  these  notices  are  undoubtedly  of  considerable  value. 
Care  should  be  taken,  on  the  one  hand,  not  to  make  them 
too  technical,  so  that  parents  will  not  understand  them,  and 
not  to  make  them  brusque  or  discourteous  on  the  other. 

In  the  second  place,  follow-up  work  may  be  successfully 
carried  on  by  conferences  at  the  school  building  or  at  the 
physician's  office.  Instead  of  sending  the  usual  notice  to 
the  home,  a  note  is  sent  telling  the  parent  that  a  defect  has 
been  discovered  and  asking  him  to  come  to  the  school  and 
talk  it  over  with  the  school  nurse  or  physician.  Regular 
office  hours  are  held  each  week  at  the  schoolhouse  for  this 
purpose,  and  parents  are  encouraged  to  come  in  and  talk 


MEDICAL  INSPECTION  -1 

over  the  problems  of  their  children,  even  when  not  ires  have 
not  been  sent.  The  plan  of  holding  parenl  conferencea  is 
usually  more  effective  than  that  of  merely  sending  home 
notices.  The  notice  is  apt  to  be  disregarded,  hut  a  request 
to  call  at  the  school  is  more  important,  and  after  the  call  is 
once  made  the  skillful  physician  or  muse  is  usually  able  to 
impress  the  parent  with  the  importance  of  putting  his  child 
in  good  physical  condition. 

The  third,  and  perhaps  the  most  effective,  form  of  follow- 
up  work  is  that  whereby  the  nurse  goes  to  the  home  of  the 
child,  and  personally  visits  the  parents.  In  this  ease  she  is 
able  to  see  something  of  the  child's  home  surrounding,  and 
frequently  finds  information  which  is  of  real  value  in  judg- 
ing the  case.  She  also  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the 
home  and  the  school.  If  need  be  she  makes  many  visits 
covering  long  periods  of  time,  in  order  to  watch  over  the 
child's  progress  and  to  keep  in  touch  with  what  the  parents 
are  doing.  The  nurse's  program  should  be  so  arranged  thai 
she  will  have  several  hours  each  day  for  this  most  important 
part  of  her  work. 

Staff  attitude.  If  the  medical  work  of  the  school  is  to  be 
efficiently  carried  on,  it  is  important  that  there  be  good 
staff  cooperation.  This  may  be  secured,  in  the  first  place, 
by  frequent  conferences  of  physicians  and  muses  meeting 
together  and  talking  over  their  problems.  It  is  important 
in  this  connection  that  the  traditional  attitude  of  the  nui 
toward  the  doctors  give  way  somewhat,  so  thai  she  may  feel 
free  to  talk  with  them  and  offer  suggestions  from  her  own 
experience.  The  stricter  etiquette  of  the  hospitals  should  be 
relaxed,  and  the  nurse  made  to  feel  that  she  lias  something 
real  to  contribute  through  her  experience  to  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  staff.  Staff  conferences  of  nurses  and  physicians 
should  be  held  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  and  at  frequent 
intervals  thereafter.    Clinics  should  be  held  whereat  chil- 


222  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

dren  are  examined,  and  the  methods  of  examination,  the 
terms  used,  methods  of  recording  information  on  cards,  etc., 
should  be  talked  over  by  the  staff  and  a  uniform  procedure 
agreed  upon,  so  that  the  records  of  each  physician  and  each 
nurse  shall  mean  the  same  to  all  the  others.  This  is  a  most 
important  consideration  if  the  statistics  of  the  department 
are  to  be  used  for  further  study. 

During  the  year  various  members  of  the  staff  should  be 
encouraged  to  bring  in  problems  which  they  meet  in  the 
field,  and  ask  suggestions  from  the  other  members  as  to  the 
best  means  of  handling  them.  Occasional  conferences  should 
be  held  with  the  principals  and  teachers  of  schools.  In 
planning  these  staff  programs  it  will  be  found  that  the  best 
results  are  secured  if  a  certain  subject  or  several  subjects 
are  selected  for  special  consideration  during  each  year.  For 
example,  one  year  devote  attention  to  locating  the  children 
showing  defects  of  vision,  and  have  many  of  the  yearly  con- 
ferences centered  about  that  subject.  Another  year,  per- 
haps, spend  considerable  time  in  studying  the  question  of 
malnutrition;  another,  such  difficulties  as  hearing,  stutter- 
ing, or  the  like.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  existence  of 
other  defects  should  be  ignored,  but  rather  provides  for  a 
system  of  rotating  or  varied  emphasis,  so  that  doctors  or 
nurses  will  not  run  the  danger  of  getting  into  a  rut  and  losing 
interest  in  their  tasks.  In  any  group  of  workers  interest  in 
a  subject  is  apt  to  rise  on  a  wave,  and  then  sink  as  the  nov- 
elty wears  off.  The  wise  chief  of  staff  will  so  plan  his  work 
that  every  time  the  wave  of  interest  begins  to  descend, 
another  subject  will  carry  it  upward  again,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  the  staff  will  be  kept  alive  and  keen  all  the  time. 

A  successful  means  of  keeping  the  staff's  interest  is  by 
making  a  regular  self -survey  of  the  work.  By  this  means 
the  reports  from  different  districts  are  handed  in  to  the 
medical   supervisor,  and  comparative  charts  are  arranged 


MEDICAL  INSPECTION  22fl 

showing  the  results  gained  in  different  subjects  by  districts. 
On  these  charts  the  names  of  the  medical  inspectors  and 
nurses  are  usually  omitted,  so  that  no  one  looking  at  them 
can  tell  who  is  responsible  for  a  given  record.  A  figure 
or  letter  is  substituted  for  the  name  of  the  person,  and  all 
other  distinguishing  marks  are  removed.  For  example,  the 
number  of  children  showing  eye  defects  and  the  number 
of  defects  remedied  for  each  district  is  compiled  and  shown. 
A  meeting  is  then  called  and  the  results  are  exhibited.  Nat- 
urally the  members  of  the  staff  are  all  eager  to  see  which 
district  shows  the  greatest  proportion  of  eye  defects  found, 
and  of  those  found,  the  greatest  proportion  remedied.  Each 
knows  his  own  score,  but  not  that  of  the  others,  and  is  aide 
to  make  a  comparison  of  his  work  with  that  of  the  rest  of 
the  staff,  yet  without  being  obliged  to  state  his  conclusions 
aloud.  Different  schemes  of  this  kind  will  keep  the  stafF 
eager  to  learn  from  each  other,  and  on  the  alert  for  new 
methods  of  procedure. 

School  physicians  and  nurses  should  all  be  encoura 
to  visit  the  medical  inspection  departments  in  other  cities. 
It  is  now  an  accepted  principle  that  school  teachers  should 
go  to  visit  the  work  of  other  teachers  in  their  own  neighbor- 
hood and  elsewhere,  and  it  should  be  equally  accepted  that 
the  school  physicians  and  nurses  can  learn  much  by  seeing 
how  the  same  work  is  done  in  other  places,  and  comparing 
the  results  there  obtained  with  those  obtained  under  their 
own  system.  Members  of  the  medical  inspection  staff 
should  also  be  given  opportunity  to  meet  other  members 
of  the  school  system.  They  should  be  invited  to  speak  at 
teachers'  conferences,  and  at  the  larger  educational  con- 
ferences of  county  and  State.  They  should  be  asked  to 
present  papers  at  teachers'  institutes,  and  should  be  encour- 
aged to  write  papers  for  publication.  In  every  way  the  pro- 
fessional  importance   of    the    medical    inspection    division 


224  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

should  be  magnified  and  the  members  of  the  staff  made  to 
feel  that  they  are  rendering  an  important  educational  serv- 
ice to  the  community. 

Textbooks  on  school  hygiene.  The  early  books  on  school 
hygiene  devoted  a  large  part  of  their  space  to  questions  of 
medical  inspection.  They  usually  gave  one  chapter  con- 
cerned with  the  organization  of  the  medical  inspection  staff 
and  its  relation  to  the  board  of  health.  In  addition,  several 
chapters  were  usually  devoted  to  the  detection  of  contagious 
diseases,  the  symptoms  of  the  commoner  forms  of  eye  dis- 
eases, skin  troubles,  and  the  like,  tests  for  vision,  tests  for 
hearing,  inspection  and  treatment  of  cases  of  spinal  curva- 
ture, psychological  examinations  for  backward  children, 
and  similar  problems.  The  problem  of  school  hygiene,  in 
fact,  was  considered  as  being  very  nearly  the  same  as  the 
problem  of  medical  inspection,  and  subjects  which  properly 
pertained  to  one  also  pertained  to  the  other. 

At  the  present  time,  however,  we  have  come  to  regard 
the  subject  of  school  hygiene  as  considerably  larger  and 
more  inclusive  than  that  of  medical  inspection.  Medical 
inspection  is  simply  a  branch,  although  an  important  branch, 
of  the  general  subject  of  school  hygiene.  The  textbook  on 
school  hygiene  should  outline  the  general  formation  and 
work  of  the  department  of  medical  inspection,  but  if  it 
be  a  textbook  of  ordinary  size  it  cannot  properly  deal  with 
the  more  detailed  problems  of  medical  inspection,  because 
these  problems  are  too  important  to  be  considered  in  the 
superficial  manner  which  would  be  necessary  were  they 
to  be  confined  within  the  limits  of  a  single  volume  which 
also  has  to  deal  just  as  fully  with  the  other  problems  of 
school  hygiene.  Most  students  of  education  do  not  need 
to  know  the  details  of  examination  for  infectious  or  con- 
tagious diseases,  the  methods  of  testing  sight,  and  hearing, 
and  the  like,  or  the  best  methods  of  treating  the  defects 


MEDICAL  INSPECTION  225 

found.  Such  a  student  should  know  in  general  the  make-up 
of  medical  inspection  corps,  the  reason  why  it  should  exist, 
the  arguments  which  will  be  brought  against  it,  and  the  serv- 
ice which  it  may  properly  hope  to  render.  He  should  leave 
to  the  members  of  the  staff  the  more  technical  information 
which  it  is  their  business  to  learn. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Where  did  school  medical  inspection  start?  Under  what  circum- 
stances?  Trace  the  spread  and  development  of  the  system. 

2.  Compare  the  arguments  presented  by  those  favoring  medical  inspec- 
tion by  boards  of  health,  and  those  favoring  medical  inspection  by 
school  authorities.    What  is  your  own  conclusion? 

3.  A  school  principal  recently  said:  "After  all,  medical  inspection  is 
intended  merely  for  poor  children.  Rich  children  don't  need  it."  Do 
you  agree?   Why? 

4.  Suppose  you  were  superintendent  of  a  city  of  two  hundred  thousand 
or  over,  and  a  tenth  of  the  population  was  opposed  to  medical  inspec- 
tion on  religious  grounds.  Would  you  enforce  it?  What  about  vac- 
cinations? How  far  are  legal  measures  for  enforcement  of  health 
regulations  justifiable? 

5.  If  it  is  proposed  to  establish  a  department  of  hygiene  in  your  school 
system,  the  supervisors  of  physical  training,  supervisor  of  school 
lunches,  psychologist,  and  other  persons  who  would  become  subordi- 
nate to  the  head  of  the  department  would  probably  strongly  oppose 
the  idea.   How  far  is  the  plan  worth  fighting  for? 

6.  Most  physicians  are  unalterably  opposed  to  the  proposition  that 
nurses  should  be  allowed  to  exclude  children  from  school  on  suspicion 
of  contagious  disease.  What  are  your  views?  In  most  systems  the 
doctor  only  calls  at  the  school  once  or  twice  a  week.  Should  the  nurse 
be  allowed  to  make  diagnoses  say  on  Monday,  Wednesday,  and 
Friday,  but  not  on  Tuesday  or  Thursday?   What  should  she  do? 

7.  One  physician  said,  "We  don't  pay  any  attention  to  adenoids  because 
most  parents  won't  do  anything  about  them."  What  attitude  should 
the  school  take  in  such  a  case? 

8.  Where  there  is  no  system  of  medical  inspection  what  can  teach- 
ers do?  What  suggestions  have  already  been  made  to  rural-school 
teachers? 

9.  How  can  a  school  surveyor  most  quickly  secure  a  fair  basis  for  judging 
the  effectiveness  of  the  medical  inspection  system? 


226  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Most  of  the  school  survey  reports  have  sections  on  this  subject.  See  espe- 
cially the  reports  on  Denver,  Portland,  Springfield,  Illinois,  Buffalo, 
Butte,  San  Antonio,  Salt  Lake,  Leavenworth,  Cleveland,  and  Brook- 
line.  The  following  books  will  all  be  found  valuable  for  further  study: — 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  and  May.  Health  Work  in  the  Public  Schools.  Mono- 
graph of  Cleveland  Education  Survey  Series,  Russell  Sage  Founda- 
tion, New  York.    (1910.) 

Cornell,  W.  S.  Health  and  Medical  Inspection  of  School  Children.  F.  A. 
Davis  Co.,  Philadelphia.    (1912.) 

Crowley,  R.  H.    Hygiene  of  School  Life.   Methuen  &  Co.,  London.    (1910.) 

Dresslar,  F.  B.  School  Hygiene.  The  Macmillan  Company.  New  York. 
(1913.) 

Gulick,  L.  II.,  and  Ayres,  Leonard  P.  Medical  Inspection  of  Schools, 
Russell  Sage  Foundation.    (Second  edition,  1913.) 

Iloag,  E.  B.,  and  Terman,  L.  M.  Health  Work  in  the  Schools.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  Boston.    (1914.) 

Rapeer,  L.  W.  School  Health  Administration.  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  New  York.    (1913.) 

Terman,  L.  M.  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child.  Houghton  Mifflin  Company, 
Boston.    (1914.)    - 


CHAPTER  XII 

1  PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION 

Recreation  surveys.  On  two  afternoons  in  November, 
1914,  during  the  hour  and  a  half  which  elapsed  between  the 
close  of  school  and  supper-time,  four  investigators  walked 
through  the  streets  of  the  little  town  of  Ipswich,  Massa- 
chusetts, looking  carefully  about  the  streets,  the  vacant  lots, 
yards,  parks,  and  playgrounds,  and  making  note  of  every 
child  they  saw.  They  noted  what  each  child  was  doing  and 
where  he  was  doing  it.  They  also  made  a  quick  judgment  as 
to  the  probable  ages  of  the  children.  During  the  three  hours 
of  their  studies  these  investigators  saw  about  seven  hundred 
children,  —  four  hundred  and  fifty  of  them  boys,  and  two 
hundred  and  fifty  of  them  girls.  Exactly  two  thirds  of  all 
the  children  were  either  standing  still  and  doing  nothing, 
or  else  were  walking  slowly  up  the  street  apparently  idling 
their  time  away.  Moreover,  although  Ipswich  is  a  town  of 
homes  with  ample  yards  and  a  wealth  of  open  fields  and 
play  space,  it  was  found  that  most  of  the  Ipswich  children 
played  or  walked  around  in  the  public  street.  This  was 
especially  true  of  the  girls.  More  than  three  fourths  of  them 
were  in  the  streets  instead  of  in  yards  or  playgrounds. 

Nor  is  this  condition  found  only  in  the  small  town.  A  few 
months  earlier  than  the  Ipswich  investigation  a  similar  cen- 
sus was  taken  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  under  the  direction  of 
the  chief  medical  inspector  and  assistant  superintendent  in 
charge  of  physical  education.  Here  are  the  conclusions 
drawn  from  the  Cleveland  census :  — 

1.  That  just  at  the  age  when  play  and  activity  are  the 
fundamental  requirements  for  proper  growth  and  devel- 


228  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

opment,   forty-one   per   cent  of  the   children   were  doing 
nothing. 

2.  Fifty-one  per  cent  of  all  the  children  seen  were  in  the 
street  in  the  midst  of  all  the  traffic,  dirt,  and  heat,  and  in  an 
environment  productive  of  just  the  wrong  kind  of  play. 

3.  Only  six  per  cent  of  the  children  seen  were  on  vacant 
lots,  despite  the  fact  that  in  most  of  the  districts  vacant  lots 
are  available  as  play  spaces. 

4.  Even  though  thirty-six  playgrounds  were  open  and 
sixteen  of  them  were  supplied  with  apparatus,  only  eleven 
per  cent  of  the  children  seen  within  four  blocks  of  a  play- 
ground were  playing  on  it. 

5.  Of  the  7358  children  reported  to  have  been  seen  play- 
ing, 3171  were  reported  to  have  been  playing  by  doing  some 
of  the  following  things:  fighting,  teasing,  pitching  pennies, 
shooting  craps,  stealing  apples,  "roughing  a  peddler,"  chas- 
ing chickens,  tying  cans  to  dogs,  etc. ;  but  most  of  them  were 
reported  to  have  been  "just  fooling,"  not  playing  anything 
in  particular. 

The  report  concludes,  'We  need  more  and  better  play- 
grounds, and  a  better-trained  leadership." 

Commercial  amusements.  In  both  these  investigations 
reports  were  made  solely  on  those  children  who  were  actually 
outdoors.  There  were  undoubtedly  large  numbers  of  chil- 
dren who  had  sought  amusement  elsewhere.  It  is  an  il- 
luminating experience  for  one  who  is  studying  the  use  of 
leisure  time  by  school  children  to  go  into  the  neighboring 
"  movies  "  about  half -past  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  It  is 
not  uncommon  to  find  a  large  moving-picture  hall  entirely 
filled  with  young  children,  with  hardly  more  than  four  or 
five  adults  in  the  entire  audience.  In  some  regions  prac- 
tically every  child  in  school  is  a  regular  attendant  at  the 
movies.  Some  of  these  children  go  two  and  three  times  a 
week,  and  for  many  the  movie  has  become  the  chief  means 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION        229 

of  recreation.  The  movie  is  most  frequently  patronized 
because  the  admission  charge  is  so  low;  but  it  has  been 
found  where  studies  have  been  made  that  young  children  in 
the  elementary  schools  are  often  frequent  visitors  at  vaude- 
ville shows  and  the  cheaper  theaters.  About  a  fifth  of  all 
school  children,  in  the  larger  cities,  at  least,  go  to  the  regular 
theater  at  least  once  a  month,  and  sometimes  more  fre- 
quently. 

When  we  speak  of  commercial  amusements  we  usually 
think  of  those  amusements  which  are  on  a  money-making 
basis  and  intended  to  attract  adult  persons.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  many  of  the  most  successful  commercial  enterprises 
cater  largely  to  children  in  the  grammar  and  high-school 
grades.  Many  forms  of  recreation  which  are  attractive  and 
desirable  in  themselves  when  placed  on  a  commercial  basis 
become  surroimded  by  undesirable  influences.  Take,  for 
example,  the  case  of  the  game  of  billiards.  In  the  survey 
made  by  the  Department  of  Recreation  of  the  Russell  Sage 
Foundation,  entitled  Recreation  in  Springfield,  Illinois,  we 
find  the  following  quotation: 

Billiards  is  an  extraordinarily  attractive  game.  Scientific,  unus- 
ually free  from  the  factor  of  chance,  it  offers  the  player  unlimited 
opportunities  for  the  improvement  of  his  ability  to  judge  spaces, 
coordinate  the  muscles,  and  exercise  persistence  of  endeavor.  The 
green  felt,  the  shining  balls,  and  the  straight  hand-liking  cue  all 
please  the  senses.  Being  played  indoors,  by  day  or  by  artificial 
light,  the  recreation  afforded  by  billiards  and  pool  is  at  all  times 
independent  of  the  weather,  and  it  is  an  especial  boon  to  the  worker 
during  the  long  winter  evenings  when  outside  sports  are  not  so 
regularly  available.  Furthermore,  these  are  eminently  sociable 
games  drawing  together  persons  of  similar  ages  and  tastes,  and 
allowing  all  the  delights  of  jest  and  witticism  to  animate  the 
spirits  while  the  play  is  going  on. 

But  in  Springfield,  just  as  is  the  case  in  most  other  cities,  the 
opportunity  to  play  billiards  is  almost  everywhere  linked  with 
powerful  temptations  to  use  alcoholic  beverages.     Of  the  sixty 


230  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

holders  of  billiard  and  pool  licenses,  thirty-six  also  hold  licenses 
enabling  them  to  have  saloons  on  the  same  premises.  The  young 
men  who  frequent  these  pool-rooms  cannot  escape  the  odors  from 
the  bar-room,  the  contagion  of  custom,  or  the  compulsion  of  a 
hospitality  that  is  none  the  less  powerful  because  it  takes  the  form 
of  alcoholic  refreshment. 

The  temptation  to  intemperance  is  not  the  only  evil  in  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  average  commercially  managed  billiard-room. 
Often  gambling  operations  hover  in  the  proximity,  and  sometimes 
the  brothel  is  not  far  away.  Moral  hazards  such  as  these  menace, 
each  year  in  Springfield,  thousands  of  young  men  who  are  pursuing 
the  pleasures  of  a  game  which  is  in  itself  as  beneficial  as  it  is  enjoy- 
able. 

There  are  also  public  dance-halls  in  Springfield  where  pass-out 
checks  are  given  to  the  patrons  which  enable  them  to  visit  neigh- 
boring saloons  during  the  progress  of  the  evening's  program  as 
often  as  they  desire.  The  young  women  in  attendance  may  not 
only  dance  with  partners  who  have  been  imbibing,  but,  since  in- 
troductions are  not  customarily  required,  they  may  at  any  time 
receive  invitations  from  persons  regarding  whose  irresponsible 
character  and  vicious  habits  they  may  be  absolutely  ignorant.  To 
thousands  of  Springfield's  young  people  dancing  is  a  perfectly  nor- 
mal mode  of  social  life,  and  the  only  feasible  opportunity  they 
have  for  enjoying  it  is  now  surrounded  by  moral  pitfalls  of  the  most 
dangerous  and  insidious  character. 

Space  for  play.  If  children  are  to  have  healthful  and  nor- 
mal play  activities  two  things  are  necessary :  first,  opportun- 
ity; and  second,  leadership.  In  the  smaller  towns  every 
home  is  usually  fitted  with  a  yard,  and  there  are  many  va- 
cant lots  and  open  fields  in  which  children  may  play.  In 
the  larger  cities  there  are  only  occasional  parks  and  play- 
grounds and  children,  at  least  in  the  poorer  districts,  are 
usually  restricted  to  playing  in  the  streets  or  on  the  roofs  of 
buildings.  In  New  York  City,  for  example,  groups  of  boys 
are  observed  much  of  the  time  on  the  tops  of  tenement  roofs 
flying  kites  or  scaring  pigeons.  In  some  of  the  most  thickly 
populated  cities  it  has  even  become  necessary  for  the 
authorities  to  close  certain  cross-streets  after  school  hours 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION        231 

and  give  them  to  the  exclusive  possession  of  children,  so 
that  the  little  folks  may  have  some  place  where  they  can 
play  without  the  danger  of  being  run  over  by  passing 
vehicles. 

As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  however,  street  play  is 
not  confined  to  the  children  of  the  larger  cities. 

Springfield  does  not,  with  its  ample  school  grounds,  park  spaces, 
and  home  grounds,  face  the  necessity  of  such  intensive  use  of 
streets.  But  the  fact  remains  that  the  streets  are  much  used  for 
play,  and,  with  school  grounds  closed  after  school  hours  and  school 
buildings  practically  unused  for  recreational  and  social  purposes, 
the  youth  of  the  city  are  forced  to  resort  to  the  streets  and  the  com- 
mercial amusement  places  for  their  afternoon  and  evening  recrea- 
tions. A  visitor  to  the  city  cannot  but  be  impressed  by  the  unusu- 
ally large  numbers  of  young  people  from  twelve  to  twenty-two 
years  of  age  drifting  up  and  down  the  " downtown"  streets  in  the 
evening. 

The  people  who  were  making  the  recreation  survey  in 
Springfield  expressed  great  surprise  when  they  discovered 
that  the  spacious  school  yards  for  which  Springfield  is  noted 
were  used  only  during  the  recess  period,  and  that  after  school 
hours  and  on  Saturdays  and  during  the  long  summer  vaca- 
tion the  grounds  for  the  most  part  lay  idle,  while  children 
played  in  the  streets  or  trespassed  upon  private  property. 
It  is  unfortunate  that  surprise  at  such  condition  cannot  be 
more  generally  felt  by  persons  acquainted  with  other  public 
school  systems.  It  is  probably  true  that  most  schools  close 
their  yards  to  children  after  the  school  day  is  over.  In 
Cleveland,  for  example,  the  rules  of  the  Board  of  Education 
read :  "  Pupils  will  not  be  allowed  to  .  .  .  remain  on  or  revisit 
the  premises  after  dismissal  of  the  school,  except  by  special 
permission  of  principal  of  the  building.' ' 

Not  only  are  children  frequently  refused  admittance  to 
the  "playground,  but  the  yards  themselves  are  surrounded 
by  high  iron  fences  with  locked  gates.   It  is  noticeable,  too, 


232  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

that  not  infrequently  the  fences  and  gates  around  play- 
grounds are  most  impregnable  in  regions  where  buildings 
are  most  crowded  and  children  are  most  seriously  in  need 
of  playground  space.  The  principal  of  a  grammar  school  in 
one  of  the  poorer  sections  of  a  wealthy  Massachusetts  town, 
speaking  of  the  playgrounds,  said :  ' '  We  used  to  have  a  good 
supply  of  playground  apparatus,  but  the  children  swarmed 
to  the  yards  in  such  numbers  and  became  so  unruly  that  we 
simply  had  to  take  down  all  the  swings  and  bars.  There  are 
a  lot  of  tough  gangs  in  this  region,  and  we  can't  allow  them 
to  damage  our  school  premises."  In  a  somewhat  better  por- 
tion of  the  same  town  the  school  principal  says:  "Of  course 
the  children  don't  use  the  playground.  We  don't  expect 
them  to.  Home  is  the  proper  place  for  school  children,  and 
they  ought  to  be  made  to  stay  there." 

It  is  perhaps  only  human  for  principals  to  wish  to  avoid 
the  responsibility  entailed  in  governing  groups  of  children 
at  the  school  playground,  and  this  is  particularly  natural  in 
regions  where  children  are  rough  and  unacquainted  with 
the  ethics  of  fair  play.  It  is,  however,  true  that  one  of  the 
most  important  elements  in  the  education  of  the  child  is 
to  be  found  through  wisely  directed  recreation  and  group 
activity.  Most  thinking  people  agree  that  lessons  in  moral 
education  cannot  successfully  be  taught  solely  by  the  lecture 
method.  Sunday-School  lessons  or  daily  morning  talks  by 
teachers  must  remain  relatively  ineffective,  unless  the  child 
is  given  an  opportunity  to  try  out  those  lessons  for  himself 
and  put  the  meaning  into  practice  in  his  own  daily  living. 
Supervised  recreation  is  a  laboratory  for  ethical  experiments. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  useful  means  which  the  school  can 
employ  in  teaching  children  the  codes  of  citizenship. 

Part  of  hygiene  teaching.  There  are  many  cities  which 
have  already  recognized  the  educational  value  of  supervised 
play.   The  field  of  physical  training  is  gradually  widening 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION       8S8 

until  it  includes  not  only  the  old-time  calisthenics,  but  al 
various  types  of  athletic  sports,  games,  and  other  forma  of 
recreational  activity.  The  division  of  physical  training  and 
recreation  should  be  one  branch  of  the  department  of  hy- 
giene, and  the  supervisor  as  the  head  should  be  directly 
subordinate  to  the  director  of  the  department  of  hygiene. 
The  membership  of  the  staff  must  depend  largely  upon  the 
size  of  the  city,  but  should  include  general  supervisors 
having  under  their  charge  the  work  of  teachers  in  classrooms 
and  on  the  playgrounds,  a  corp  of  specially  trained  play- 
ground teachers,  and  a  corp  of  special  instructors  who  can 
give  work  with  gymnasium  apparatus,  lead  the  sports  of 
basket-ball,  baseball,  and  the  like,  and  act  as  coaches  and 
instructors  for  the  various  athletic  contests. 

Cooperation  of  medical  inspectors.  It  is  essential  that 
the  division  of  physical  training  and  recreation  shall  work 
in  the  closest  possible  cooperation  with  the  division  of  medi- 
cal inspection.  Medical  inspectors  in  making  their  routine 
physical  examination  should  keep  in  mind  the  requirements 
of  the  physical -training  department,  and  in  the  cases  of 
elementary  schools  as  well  as  high  schools  should  indicate 
for  each  child  whether  he  should  take  the  full  athletic  work, 
or  whether  certain  types  of  work  should  be  entirely  omitted 
or  given  in  small  quantities.  When  gymnasium  classes  were 
first  established  in  elementary  and  high  schools,  it  was  a 
common  experience  to  have  many  of  the  children  bring  notes 
from  their  family  physicians,  stating  that  they  were  unable 
to  do  the  regular  physical-training  work.  It  has  been  suc- 
cessfully demonstrated  that  if  careful  medical  inspection  is 
carried  on  at  the  school,  and  the  program  of  the  child  modi- 
fied in  accordance  with  the  suggestions  of  the  doctor,  objec- 
tions from  home  rapidly  diminish  in  number.  Children  who 
would  otherwise  have  been  deprived  of  all  physical  training 
now  receive  a  small  portion  which  they  are  well  able  to 


234  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

carry,  and  in  many  cases  improve  so  rapidly  under  the 
modified  program  that  within  a  year  or  two  they  are  able  to 
carry  much  heavier  work  with  benefit  to  themselves. 

Posture  work.  The  experiment  has  also  been  tried  of 
having  a  specialist  in  the  correction  of  postural  defects 
engaged  as  a  regular  member  of  the  physical-training  staff. 
Children  even  in  the  lowest  primary  grades  are  frequently 
found  suffering  from  round  shoulders,  crooked  backs,  fallen 
arches,  and  other  defects  which  can  either  be  completely  rem- 
edied or  very  greatly  helped  if  corrective  exercises  are  given 
in  time.  It  is,  of  course,  essential  that  any  instruction  along 
this  line  be  under  the  direction  of  a  specialist  in  corrective  or- 
thopedic work.  Where  the  divisions  of  medical  inspection 
and  physical  training  work  together  in  this  activity,  they 
may  render  a  service  of  supreme  importance.  When  the 
examinations  are  being  made  by  the  medical  inspectors, 
such  postural  defects  are  noted,  and  word  sent  to  the  pos- 
ture specialist  of  the  physical-training  department.  Cer- 
tain of  the  cases  found  will  be  too  difficult  for  the  school 
authorities  to  handle  successfully  with  their  small  staff,  and 
should  be  referred  to  orthopedic  physicians  or  hospitals. 
Other  cases,  however,  can  be  greatly  helped  by  simple 
school  procedure. 

One  plan  sometimes  followed  is  to  form  small  classes  in 
each  school,  consisting  of  from  three  to  ten  children,  and  to 
set  aside  periods  of  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  probably  not 
longer,  each  day,  in  which  will  be  given  setting-up  exercises 
and  simple  forms  of  apparatus  work.  The  apparatus  needed 
for  these  cases  is  so  simple  that  the  janitor  can  easily  put  it 
up  in  any  classroom  or  hall,  under  the  direction  of  the  physi- 
cal-training supervisor.  These  setting-up  drills  are  not  so 
much  for  the  purpose  of  developing  muscle  as  for  making  the 
children  familiar  with  what  is  desired  in  the  way  of  posture. 
A  child  cannot  "stand  up  straight"  or  "throw his  shoulders 


— 


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PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION        235 

back"  unless  he  knows,  through  his  own  repeated  experience, 
what  the  muscle  feeling  is  when  the  coned  attitude  is 
assumed.  Repeated  instruction  or  scolding  will  be  of  very 
little  help.  What  must  be  done  is  to  take  the  child  and 
actually  place  him  in  the  desired  position,  showing  him  in 
the  mirror  the  difference  it  makes  hi  his  appearance,  and 
having  him  practice  throwing  himself  into  a  good  posture 
under  the  supervisor's  direction.  When  a  child  with  stoop- 
ing shoulders  once  learns  what  is  actually  required  of  him, 
through  having  himself  experienced  the  way  it  feels  to  have 
his  muscles  properly  in  place,  half  the  battle  of  correcting 
the  defects  is  won. 

The  work  of  the  physical  training  and  medical  inspection 
divisions  must  not  stop  there,  however.  Besides  giving  the 
setting-up  drills  each  day  to  squads  of  children  with  defects, 
teachers  must  be  given  the  habit  of  watching  the  posture  of 
all  the  children  in  their  classes,  and  of  encouraging  children 
so  that  all  of  them  will  feel  the  desirability  of  sitting  and 
standing  in  the  correct  position.  Then,  too,  care  must  be 
taken  to  get  in  touch  with  parents  of  children  and  to  see  to 
it  that  they  understand  not  only  the  nature  of  the  trouble, 
but  also  what  the  school  suggests  to  the  child  and  what  it  is 
trying  to  do  through  the  setting-up  drills.  When  a  mother 
hears  the  instructions  given  to  her  small  boy,  she  almost 
invariably  becomes  intensely  interested,  and  helps  him  at 
home  by  reminding  him  of  the  exercises  he  should  take,  and 
encouraging  him  when  he  does  well.  In  many  cases  the 
school,  by  a  few  interviews  with  parents,  is  able  to  change 
their  attitude  of  ignorant  indifference  or  carping  criticism. 
Many  parents,  through  very  anxiety  for  their  children's 
welfare,  become  so  obnoxious  with  their  constant  scolding 
that  the  children  themselves  become  stubborn,  and  feel  that 
there  is  no  use  even  in  trying  since  all  their  trying  seems  to 
meet  with  no  reward.  If  the  school  succeeds  in  showing  such 


236  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

parents  how  to  help  their  children,  instead  of  discouraging 
them  by  non-understanding  criticism,  it  will  contribute  an 
enormous  factor  toward  the  child's  success. 

Physiological  age.    The  work  of  the  division  of  physical 
training  and  recreation  should  be  confined  neither  to  the 
high  school  nor  to  the  elementary  school.    In  many  systems 
one  or  the  other  is  almost  or  entirely  neglected.  In  the  well- 
organized  system  the  division  will  include  both  branches,  and 
will  even  arrange  for  contests  between  the  older  children 
of  the  elementary  schools  and  the  younger  children  of  the 
high  schools.    The  division  between  the  two  groups  is  en- 
tirely an  artificial  matter,  and  should  not  be   allowed  to 
assume  the  importance  that  it  generally  does  assume  in 
the  minds  of  children  and  community.    There  is  a  popular 
misconception  to  the  effect  that  all  the  children  in  each 
grade  are  of  practically  the  same  age  and  at  the  same  stage 
of  physical  and  mental  development.    As  a  matter  of  fact, 
we  know  that  there  are  children  in  the  eighth  grade  of  the 
grammar  school  who  are  less  proficient  in  many  of  the  school 
studies  than  are  some  children  in  the  first  and  second  grades 
of  the  same  school,  and  in  like  manner  there  are  some  chil- 
dren in  the  first  and  second  grades  who  are  more  able  in 
certain  school  studies  than  children  in  the  higher  grades. 
Similarly,  it  is  true  that  one  will  find,  stretching  all  the  way 
from  the  fifth  grade  through  the  junior  high  school,  boys 
and  girls  who  have  practically  the  same  physical  develop- 
ment.   The  adolescent  period  is  not  peculiar  to  the  high 
school,  nor  is  the  pubescent  period  peculiar  to  the  element- 
ary school.   Each  group  is  represented  by  children  who  are 
students  in  the  other  type  of  school.   In  organizing  physical 
training  and  recreational  activities,  then,  we  must  take  this 
matter  of  a  distribution  of  physiological  age  into  account, 
and  see  to  it  that  opportunities  are  provided  which  fit  not 
merely  the  children  of  a  particular  grade,  but  rather  the 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION        237 

children  of  a  particular  stage  of  development  no  matter  in 
what  grade  or  in  what  school  they  may  be  found. 

Classroom  exercises.  Until  very  recently  it  has  been  the 
custom  to  confine  physical  training  to  certain  calisthenic 
exercises,  given  several  times  a  day  by  the  classroom  teacher, 
between  recitation  periods.  Recently,  however,  a  strong 
tendency  has  developed  either  to  eliminate  calistheni 
entirely,  or  to  place  them  in  a  minor  role,  and  to  give  the 
time  formerly  occupied  by  such  work  to  simple  forms  of 
classroom  games.  This  point  of  view  is  illustrated  from  the 
following  quotation,  taken  from  the  recreation  survey  of 
Ipswich,  Massachusetts:  — 

Calisthenics  are  necessary  in  the  schoolroom  to  shake  ofT  drowsi- 
ness, renew  energy,  and  provide  an  outlet  for  the  natural  restl< 
ness  of  boys  and  girls.  But  calisthenics  are  at  besl  perfunctory 
activities,  without  the  free,  adventurous,  imaginative  qualities  <»f 
games  and  free  play.  Few  take  calisthenic  exercises  in  after  life. 
They  do  not  build  lifelong  habits.  They  lack  the  cooperative  team 
work,  opportunity  for  developing  real  leadership,  and  stimulation 
found  in  free  games  and  active  play.  No  incentive  to  succeed,  no 
training  of  good  sportsmanship  exists.  Calisthenics  are  better  than 
nothing,  they  are  a  step  in  advance,  but  they  are  not  sufficient  in 
themselves  to  insure  physical  efficiency  and  to  teach  the  social 
lessons  demanded  of  the  school  to-day. 

In  Cleveland,  calisthenics  are  omitted  entirely  from  the 
primary  grades.  Periods  of  "rest  and  recreation"  occur 
several  times  a  day,  at  the  discretion  of  the  grade  teacher; 
and  during  these  periods  many  formal  games  are  carried  on. 
Where  such  indoor  games  are  popular  and  well  taught, 
there  is  sometimes  noted  a  tendency  to  do  away  altogether 
with  outdoor  recess.  The  Cleveland  Report  holds  that  this 
is  a  distinct  mistake :  — 

Valuable  and  desirable  as  the  indoor  play  periods  may  be,  they 
are  not  a  complete  substitute  for  outdoor  play  during  the  school 
session.  When  the  recreational  activities  of  children  are  transferred 
from  outdoors  to  indoors  their  value  is  lessened  through:  — 


238  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

1.  Loss  of  fresh  air. 
l2.   Lack  of  sunshine. 

3.  Restriction  of  space  and  full  freedom  of  activity. 

4.  Diminished  pleasure. 

5.  Narrowed  range  of  activities. 

6.  Extreme  brevity  of  the  period. 

7.  Dust  raised  by  the  running  and  jumping. 

The  spontaneous  play  of  children  is  now  generally  recognized  as 
the  expression  of  such  fundamental  human  instincts  as  hunting, 
fighting,  creating,  nurturing,  imitating,  etc.  All  out-of-doors  is 
none  too  large  to  provide  the  needed  stimuli  to  these  instincts, 
and  every  unnecessary  narrowing  down  of  environment  denaturizes 
by  so  much  the  essentials  in  child  play. 

Recess.  The  report  gives  strong  warning,  however, 
against  the  practice  of  sending  children  outdoors  at  recess 
and  expecting  them  to  play  in  a  wholesome  manner:  — 

Under  conditions  attending  recesses  that  are  unorganized  and 
that  lack  method,  children  do  nevertheless  play  games,  but  there 
is  a  vast  deal  of  informal,  sometimes  anti-social,  and  relatively 
valueless  romping  and  scuffling,  and  the  recess  becomes  a  period, 
not  of  genuine  social  increase,  but  rather  of  social  leakage. 

Moreover,  it  is  essential  that  the  games  conducted  at 
recess  and  on  the  playground  should  be  distinctly  athletic 
in  character.  In  discussing  the  list  of  games  issued  by  the 
department  of  physical  training  in  Cleveland  for  use  in 
grades  from  three  to  eight,  the  Cleveland  Report  says:  — 

While  the  playground  games  come  nearer  supplying  the  elements 
needed,  even  these  fall  short  of  what  is  desirable.  They  consist 
very  largely  of  games  of  tag,  and  the  simpler  games  played  with  an 
inflated  ball.  Not  one  of  these,  by  any  stretch  of  the  imagination, 
could  be  conceived  as  holding  such  widespread  interest  as  do  our 
great  national  games,  which  boys  of  grammar-school  age  univer- 
sally admire  and  attempt.  The  playground  games  hold  about  the 
same  relation  to  the  national  games  that  tether-ball  does  to  tennis. 

Athletic  games  in  a  very  few  years  greatly  influenced  one  hundred 
thousand  Filipinos  in  departing  from  the  ghastly  custom  of  head- 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION        239 

hunting.  But  song  games,  room  games,  and  playground  games  of 
the  kind  mentioned  could  never  have  converted  Filipinos  from 
head-hunting,  nor  can  they  convert  or  restrain  from  hoodhmnsm, 
from  " bumming,"  from  "rushing  the  drunks,"  from  Btreel  fighting, 
and  from  other  undesirable  gang  activities  the  boys  who  begin  to 
participate  in  these  things  long  before  the  elementary-school  age 
is  passed  and  the  high-school  age  is  reached. 

Teachers  and  games.   It  is  probable  that  many  teachers 

will  strongly  rebel  if  it  is  suddenly  suggested  to  them  that 
they  should  act  as  leaders  for  active  games  during  the  reo 
period.  They  feel,  naturally  enough,  that  having  worked 
hard  all  the  morning  they  should  be  given  a  few  minutes  of 
quiet  breathing  spell  while  the  children  are  put  of  the  school, 
before  they  are  obliged  again  to  take  up  their  classroom 
work.  Moreover,  not  a  few  teachers  have  a  feeling  that  it 
would  be  difficult  for  them  to  maintain  discipline  in  the 
classroom  were  they  to  lay  aside  their  official  dignity  long 
enough  to  lead  in  active  games  on  the  playground.  It  is 
probably  true  that  there  are  certain  teachers  who  would 
lose  their  hold  upon  the  children  were  they  to  engage  in 
any  form  of  social  activity  with  them.  But  such  a  situat  i<  >n 
is  a  clear  indication  that  the  teacher  is  using  very  question- 
able methods  in  the  regular  classroom  work  in  order  to 
secure  good  discipline.  Really  good  teachers  do  not  have 
to  be  particularly  sensitive  about  maintaining  an  appear- 
ance of  age  and  dignity  in  front  of  their  children.  Usually 
they  will  find  that  when  teacher  and  pupils  play  together 
for  a  few  minutes  each  day,  the  work  afterwards  in  the  class- 
room is  on  a  much  more  friendly  and  human  basis  than  it 
was  before.  In  the  long  run,  democracy  is  a  more  effective 
special  method  than  autocracy. 

So  far  as  concerns  the  other  objection,  that  the  teacher  is 
too  tired  to  take  part  in  playground  leadership,  the  only 
answer  is,  "Try  it  and  see."   We  send  children  outdoors  at 


2-40  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

recess  because  we  feel  that  they  are  thereby  made  fresher 
and  more  able  to  continue  the  classroom  work  for  the  rest 
of  the  day.  If  this  holds  true  for  children,  it  would  seem 
logical  to  think  that  it  holds  true  for  at  least  the  younger 
teachers  also.  For  the  first  week,  perhaps  even  for  the  first 
month,  many  teachers  will  strongly  dislike  the  innovation, 
partly  because  they  are  unaccustomed  to  this  form  of 
activity  and  feel  both  nervous  and  self-conscious.  Let  the 
playground  games  become  an  old  story,  however,  and  this 
feeling  of  strangeness  gradually  wears  away.  Most  teachers, 
unless  they  are  too  old  and  stiff,  will  find  that  they  enjoy 
the  outdoor  recess  period  as  well  as  do  the  children,  and  that 
the  classroom  work  afterwards  becomes  easier  and  more 
endurable  for  both. 

Activities  outside  school  hours.  Organized  play  in  the 
classroom  and  on  the  playground  at  recess  may  very  suc- 
cessfully be  led  by  teachers  trained  under  the  supervision 
of  the  physical-training  and  recreation  division.  We  must 
not,  however,  exact  from  regular  classroom  teachers  further 
service  in  play  activities  after  school  hours,  unless  we  pay 
them  for  the  additional  time  and  make  such  service  volun- 
tary. A  teacher  or  playground  director  should  be  in  charge 
of  the  school  playground  every  afternoon  after  school  hours, 
and  on  Saturday  afternoons  throughout  the  entire  school 
year.  During  the  summer  more  workers  should  be  added 
and  the  playground  should  be  kept  open  daily,  morning  and 
afternoon.  During  the  school  year  the  expense  for  play- 
ground supervision  is  between  one  dollar  and  a  half  and  two 
dollars  per  school  for  each  afternoon,  and  three  dollars  for 
Saturdays.  The  cost  during  the  summer  would  necessarily 
be  somewhat  larger.  If  school  playgrounds  are  properly 
surfaced  and  equipped  with  simple  apparatus  they  usually 
form  a  better  playground  than  those  which  are  established 
separately,   because   they   are   always   accessible   to  large 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION       241 

numbers  of  children  and  are  already  supplied  with  shelter, 
drinking-water,  and  toilet  facilities. 

Athletics.  It  is  commonly  believed  that  all  boys  like  to 
run  and  jump  and  join  in  competitive  trials  of  skill,  and  that 
they  do  not  need  the  expensive  services  of  a  hired  director 
in  order  to  teach  them  how  to  do  these  things.  In  fact,  the 
person  who  suggests  supervision  for  physical  training  and 
recreation  in  the  public  schools  is  certain  to  be  faced  with 
the  sincere  and  scornful  opposition  of  people  who  think 
that  they  know  what  they  are  talking  about  when  they  say 
healthy  children  do  not  need  to  be  taught  how  to  play. 
There  is  very  little  use  arguing  against  a  proposition  like 
that.  The  only  effective  answer  is  found  by  studying  the 
children  themselves.  We  have  already  noted  the  survey 
findings  as  to  the  way  in  which  school  children  employ  their 
leisure  time.  Equally  significant  are  the  various  studies 
which  have  been  made  comparing  children  under  the  old 
regime  with  those  under  the  new.  For  example,  in  the 
Ipswich  study  previously  referred  to,  boys  in  the  fifth,  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  grades  of  the  elementary  schools  in 
Ipswich,  Massachusetts;  and  in  the  districts  of  Manhattan, 
New  York  City,  were  given  the  same  tests  of  running,  jump- 
ing, and  chinning  the  bar.   The  Report  says :  — 

These  records  are  not  the  high  marks  obtained  during  the  course 
of  several  years,  but  the  actual  physical  rating  of  the  boys  in  the 
regular  work  during  the  past  year.  The  majority  of  these  boys  live 
in  the  most  congested  section  of  Greater  New  York,  where  the 
health  conditions  and  opportunities  for  exercise  do  not  compare 
favorably  with  those  enjoyed  by  the  hoys  of  Ipswich.  The  impor- 
tant thing  is  that  these  city  boys  have  had  definite  physical  training 
and  properly  guided  play  as  a  regular  part  of  their  school  work. 

The  city  boys  can  outrun  and  outjump  the  Ipswich  boys.  .  .  . 
The  records  of  the  Manhattan  boys  is  not  due  to  exceptional  skill 
or  greater  inherent  ability.  It  is  due  to  the  careful  physical  train- 
ing in  the  school.  The  training  that  is  given  to  the  Manhattan 
boys  ought  not  to  be  denied  to  the  Ipswich  boys.  These  figures  do 


242  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

not  indicate  inherent  weakness  nor  ill -health.  They  prove  beyond 
question  that  insufficient  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  physical 
training  of  the  boys  in  Ipswich. 

The  athletic-badge  test.  The  records  of  the  Ipswich  and 
Manhattan  boys  were  made  with  what  is  known  as  the 
athletic-badge  test.  This  is  a  test  adopted  by  the  Playground 
and  Recreation  Association  of  America  as  furnishing  stand- 
ards to  which  every  boy  should  attain.  There  is  a  similar 
test  for  girls.  For  the  boys  these  tests  are  running,  jumping, 
and  chinning.  Careful  study  has  been  made  of  the  records 
of  thousands  of  boys,  and  standards  ascertained  which 
should  be  reached  by  the  average  normal  boy.  These  tests 
are  as  follows :  — 

Class  A  —  For  younger  boys,  usually  those  found  in  fifth  and 
sixth  grades.   Sixty-yard  dash,  8|  seconds.  Standing  broad  jump, 

5  feet,  9  inches.   Chinning,  4  times. 

Class  B  —  For  older  boys,  usually  those  found  in  seventh  and 
eighth  grades.   Sixty-yard  dash,  8  seconds.   Standing  broad  jump, 

6  feet,  C  inches.    Chinning,  G  times. 

Class  C  —  Standard  for  boys  of  the  general  high-school  age. 
220-yard  dash,  28  seconds.  Running  high  jump,  4  feet,  4  inches 
Chinning,  9  times. 

In  describing  the  plan  the  Ipswich  Report  says :  — 

In  these  tests  the  standard  does  not  represent  perfection,  but 
merely  a  passing  mark.  Not  to  attain  a  passing  mark  is  failure. 
The  standard  in  these  events  corresponds  to  the  sixty  or  seventy 
per  cent  which  is  the  passing  mark  in  academic  study.  The  tests 
determine  not  only  normal  strength,  but  also  ability  to  use  and 
control  strength.  This  is  the  goal  of  all  physical  training.  If  a  boy 
can  neither  use  nor  control  his  body  to  a  reasonable  degree  a  vital 
element  of  his  equipment  for  future  usefulness  is  lacking.  These 
tests  are  being  used  in  the  public  schools  in  hundreds  of  cities  and 
towns  throughout  the  United  States.  They  have  been  accepted  as 
fair  tests  wherever  used.  The  inability  of  any  large  proportion  of 
the  boys  of  any  community  to  meet  these  requirements  shows :  first 
lack  of  physical  training  either  at  home  or  at  school,  and  second 
the  real  need  for  just  such  training. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION        243 

The  tests  for  girls  are  as  follows:  — 

First  test  —  All-up  Indian  club  race,  SO  seconds.  Basket-ball 
throwing,  2  goals,  6  trials.   Balancing,  24  feet,  2  trials. 

Second  test  —  All-up  Indian  club  race,  28  seconds.  Basket-ball 
throwing,  3  goals,  6  trials.  Balancing  beanbag  on  bead,  84  feet, 
2  trials.  When  Indian  clubs  are  not  available  the  potato  race,  as 
specified  in  the  rules,  may  be  substituted. 

Further  details,  with  rules  for  administering  the  two  tests 
for  boys  and  girls,  may  be  secured  by  applying  to  the  Play- 
ground and  Recreation  Association  of  America,  1  Madison 
Avenue,  New  York  City. 

Group  Athletics.  It  is  desirable  to  have  not  only  each 
child  striving  to  improve  his  own  physical  record,  but  also 
to  cultivate  a  test  of  group  ability.  Where  athletic  records 
are  made  for  individual  prowess  alone  there  sometimes  comes 
the  temptation  to  beat  out  the  other  fellow,  and  the  desire 
for  personal  success  assumes  too  great  a  place  in  the  child's 
mind.  Moreover,  when  schools  are  anxious  to  win  honors, 
there  comes  a  very  human  tendency  to  encourage  the  better 
athletes  and  to  discourage  the  less  successful.  One  of  the 
most  effective  means  of  doing  away  with  this  form  of  spe- 
cialization and  selection  is  to  have  competition  by  groups 
of  children,  rather  than  by  children  acting  as  individuals. 
These  groups  may  be  of  equal  numbers  of  boys  or  girls  of 
the  same  age,  or  they  may  be  entire  classes  of  one  school 
competing  against  each  other,  or  different  groups  of  equal 
numbers  from  different  schools.  The  entire  membership  of 
the  group  is  obliged  to  take  part.  If  less  than  eighty  per  cent 
of  the  group  are  present,  no  record  is  given  for  that  group. 
One  desirable  result  of  group  competition  is  that,  through 
the  force  of  public  opinion,  every  child  is  made  to  do  his 
very  best.  Laziness  which  jeopardizes  the  group  standing 
is  not  tolerated. 

In  each  event  the  score  is  found  by  dividing  the  sum  of 
the  individual  records  by  the  number  of  competitors.   This 


244  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

makes  it  possible  where  necessary  to  have  small  groups 
working  against  larger  groups,  since  the  actual  number 
of  children  in  each  group  makes  very  little  difference.  In 
working  for  trophies  to  be  awarded  to  different  classes  within 
the  same  school,  or  to  entire  schools  within  the  district, 
competitions  should  be  held  in  several  different  tests.  The 
most  usual  are  the  three  already  cited  in  jumping,  chinning, 
and  running.  Other  events  successfully  used  are  kicking 
the  football,  throwing  the  baseball,  the  shotput,  and  the 
relay  potato  race.  For  groups  of  girls  the  most  common 
tests  are  basket-ball  throw,  all-up  relays,  shuttle  relays, 
folk-dancing,  and  hoop  race. 

Public  school  athletic  league.  As  part  of  this  new  system 
of  using  athletics  as  a  means  for  education  athletic  leagues 
have  been  organized  in  public  schools  in  many  of  the  larger 
cities  throughout  the  country.  Baltimore,  Buffalo,  Jersey 
City,  Newark,  New  Orleans,  New  York,  Salem,  Massachu- 
setts, San  Diego,  San  Francisco,  Seattle,  Springfield,  Massa- 
chusetts, Tacoma,  Troy,  and  Washington,  D.C.,  all  have 
public  school  athletic  leagues  for  boys  and  issue  printed 
reports  on  their  subjects.  Athletic  leagues  for  girls  are  some- 
what less  common,  but  are  nevertheless  being  rapidly  added 
in  these  and  other  cities.  One  of  the  most  successful  athletic 
leagues  for  girls  is  that  of  New  York  City.  The  follow- 
ing quotations  are  taken  from  the  handbook  of  the  New 
York  League :  — 

The  problems  involved  in  girls'  athletics  were  much  more  diffi- 
cult than  those  in  boys'  athletics,  the  athletics  of  boys  and  men 
being  established  through  a  long  history  of  evolution,  while  girls' 
athletics  was  a  new  subject,  which  of  necessity  had  to  be  largely 
experimental. 

The  fundamental  policies  adopted  by  the  Girls'  Branch 
were  and  are :  — 

Athletics  for  all  the  girls. 

Athletics  within  the  school,  and  no  inter-school  competition. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION       245 

Athletic  events  in  which  teams  (not  individual  girls)  compete. 
Athletics  chosen  and  practiced  with  regard  to  their  suitability 
for  girls,  and  not  merely  an  imitation  of  hoys'  athletii 

The  Girls'  Branch  of  the  Public  Schools  Athletic  League 
encourages  after-school  athletics  for  girls  by :  — 

1.  Offering  pins  and  trophies  for  certain  events. 

2.  Conducting  free  instruction  classes  in  those  events  for  grade 
teachers  who  volunteer  their  services  for  the  after-school 
athletics. 

3.  Assisting  to  organize  athletic  clubs. 

4.  Supplying  instructors,  coaches,  and  assistants  where  the 
board  of  education  is  unable  to  do  so. 

5.  Trying  to  secure  enlarged  facilities  for  outdoor  exercise  for  girls. 

The  Girls'  Branch  is  doing  everything  in  its  power  to 
further  the  use  of  folk-dancing  as  a  form  of  play  for  the  bene- 
fit and  pleasure  of  the  children  themselves,  and  is  opposed 
to  its  use  for  exhibition  purposes.  Park  fetes  are  arranged  as 
great  play  days,  with  the  children  in  great  numbers  from 
many  schools,  dotted  in  groups  over  great  meadows  of  fif- 
teen acres  or  more  which  are  roped  off  and  kept  clear  for 
the  children  only.  In  this  way  the  individual  children  are 
lost  to  view  in  the  great  throng,  and  the  exhibition  element 
is  eliminated,  while  at  the  same  time  the  sight  of  acres  of 
happy  girls,  all  dancing  at  the  same  time,  is  a  more  stirring 
and  beautiful  one  than  can  be  easily  described. 

If  we  are  ever  really  to  have  athletics  for  girls  generally, 
we  must  settle  at  least  the  following  points :  — 

1.  What  exercises  are  likely  to  be  injurious  internally  to  matured 
girls? 

2.  What  exercises  are  mechanically  suited  to  the  build  of  the 
average  girl? 

3.  What  are  suited  to  her  muscular  strength  and  endurance? 

4.  What  will  contribute  to  her  health  and  vitality,  and  help  to 
fit  her  for  a  normal  woman's  life!" 

5.  What  form  of  physical  activity  comes  nearest  to  containing 
for  her  the  primitive  appeal  that  athletics  in  the  accepted 
sense  hold  for  bovs? 


246 


HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 


Wide  inquiry  among  those  who  have  had  extensive  experi- 
ence with  physical  training  for  girls  shows  that  athletic 
activities  for  girls  fall  into  the  following  groups :  — 


For  mature  girls 

1.  Condemned 

Broad  jump 

High  jump  (in  competi- 
tion) 
Pole-vaulting 

2.  Doubtful 

High  jump 

Running  more  than  100 
yards  (in  competition) 
Weight-throwing 

3.  Safe 

Archery 

Ball-throwing 

Basket-ball  (women's  rules) 

Climbing 

Coasting 

Dancing 

Field  hockey 

Golf 

Horseback  riding  (cross- 
and  side-saddle) 

Indoor  baseball 

Low  hurdles  (not  in  com- 
petition) 

Paddling 

Rowing 

Running  (not  in  competi- 
tion) 

Skating 

Skiing 

Snowshoeing 

Swimming 

Tennis 

Walking 


For  immature  girls 

1.  Condemned 

Pole-vaulting 

Running  more  than  100 

yards 
Weight-throwing 

2.  Doubtful 

Basket-ball 
Field  hockey 


Safe 

Archery 

Ball-throwing 

Broad  and  high  jump  (not 
in  competition) 

Climbing 

Dancing 

Horseback  riding  (cross- 
saddle) 

Low  hurdles 

Paddling 

Rowing 

Running  (not  in  intense 
competition) 

Skating 

Swimming 

Tennis 

Walking 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION        247 

For  mature  girls  For  immature  girls 

4.  Especially  beneficial  and  suit-  4.  Especially  beneficial  and  suit- 
able able 
Dancing                                         Climbing 
Paddling                                         Dancing 
Rowing                                         Jumping  fin  moderation) 
Running                                              Running  (in  moderation) 
Swimming                                         Skating 
Walking                                            Swimming 

Walking 

5.  Best  loved,  most  commonly 
practiced  and  with  great- 
est primitive  appeal 
Dancing  (greatest  una- 
nimity of  opinion  in  this 
answer) 

Educational  sports.  Physical-culture  departments  should 
be  careful  not  to  confine  their  activities  and  interests  merely 
to  the  field  of  individual  or  group  athletics.  Many  of  the 
most  valuable  forms  of  group  education  which  can  be  given 
under  the  supervision  of  the  physical-training  department 
are  not  athletic  tests,  but  different  forms  of  games  and 
sports.  For  example,  we  find  leaders  in  the  physical-training 
and  recreation  movement  urging  the  necessity  for  establish- 
ing regularly  organized  baseball  teams  for  both  boys  and 
girls;  and  wrestling-  and  boxing-matches  for  boys,  tennis, 
ice-skating,  riding,  swimming,  camping,  hunting,  fishing, 
and  school  hikes  for  both  girls  and  boys  are  all  included 
as  educational  activities  wrhich  are  essential  to  the  proper 
physical  and  mental  development  of  school  children.  "A 
teacher,"  suggests  Dr.  G.  E.  Johnson,  "might  be  as  instru- 
mental in  getting  a  girl  interested  in  tennis  as  in  getting  her 
interested  in  Scott."  Moreover,  these  activities  must  not 
be, delayed  until  high-school  or  college  age.  Most  of  them 
should  be  begun  by  the  ages  of  ten  or  eleven;  and  the 


248  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

grammar-school  years  should  be  full  of  vigorous  sound 
outdoor  life  as  a  regularly  required  part  of  the  school 
work. 

Wider  use  of  the  school  plant.  As  has  already  been 
pointed  out  there  are  two  essentials  for  educative  recreation 
among  children.  One  is  adequate  leadership,  the  other  is 
opportunity.  Not  only  must  the  division  of  physical  train- 
ing and  recreation  provide  a  sufficient  number  of  well- 
trained  leaders,  so  that  all  children  may  take  part  in  organ- 
ized games  and  athletics,  but  the  school  department  must 
also  see  to  it  that  facilities  are  provided  whereby  these 
things  may  be  carried  on.  This  means  that  school  yards 
must  be  provided  with  ample  space  for  games,  must  be 
given  good  service,  and  equipped  with  suitable  apparatus. 
It  means  that  at  least  one  large  playfield  must  be  supplied 
so  that  different  schools  can  meet  together  in  contests.  It 
means  that  the  cooperation  of  the  park  department  must 
be  secured,  so  that  the  open  fields  in  various  parks  may  be 
utilized  by  school  children.  But  in  addition  to  all  these 
matters,  if  the  system  outlined  is  to  be  made  effective,  full 
utilization  must  be  secured  of  the  school  plant  itself.  Space 
must  be  given  for  basket-ball  games,  wrestling,  boxing, 
dancing,  and  swimming,  as  well  as  for  the  quieter  occupa- 
tions of  playing  pool  and  billiards,  singing,  playing  musical 
instruments,  conducting  amateur  theatricals,  and  making 
things  at  the  work-bench 

To  many  people  the  social-center  movement  implies  only 
the  use  of  the  building  during  the  evening  by  parents  of 
school  children;  and  people  quite  forget  that  one  of  its  most 
important  functions  is  providing  for  children  of  school  age, 
and  for  those  children  who  are  somewhat  older  than  the 
regular  school  age,  and  may  indeed  have  left  school  in 
order  to  go  to  work,  some  place  where  they  can  carry  on 
recreational  activities  under  leadership.  There  is  little  value 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION        24f) 

in  passing  rules  against  allowing  children  to  attend  public 
dance-halls,  billiard-rooms  with  bars  attached,  cheap  the- 
aters, movies,  or  the  like.  If  teachers  and  parents  arc  sincere 
in  wishing  to  combat  the  evil  influences  of  commercialized 
amusements  they  must  adopt  a  constructive  attitude.  In- 
stead of  forbidding  children  to  attend  public  dances,  they 
must  organize  dances  for  young  people  which  will  be  held 
under  desirable  conditions.  Moreover,  these  dances  mu 
be  made  attractive  to  the  young  people.  If  the  floor  is 
smooth  and  well  waxed  and  the  music  good,  boys  ami  girls 
will  readily  come.  If  teachers  and  parents  are  wise  enough 
to  provide  amusements  of  higher  quality  than  those  which 
can  be  purchased  elsewhere,  they  will  find  practically  no 
difficulty  in  securing  patrons  among  the  school  children. 

In  the  same  way  well-equipped  billiard-  and  pool-tables, 
well  lighted  and  in  convenient  location,  should  be  opposed 
to  the  billiard-room  found  in  the  back  room  of  the  modern 
saloon.  If  amateur  theatricals  are  to  rival  attendance  at 
the  movies  and  the  cheaper  theaters,  they  must  be  equally 
exciting  and  full  of  "pep."  The  same  rule  applies  through- 
out. Offer  the  children  what  they  want  and  they  will  come. 
It  is  of  little  use  to  offer  to  the  tough  gang  of  the  neigh- 
borhood the  opportunity  to  sit  quietly  in  the  schoolhouse 
and  play  checkers  and  dominoes  for  an  evening,  but  by 
establishing  a  series  of  boxing-contests  under  the  direction 
of  a  skilled  trainer,  we  make  the  same  school  building  a 
clubhouse  for  the  whole  gang. 

It  is  not  within  the  province  of  this  book  to  go  in  any 
great  detail  into  the  question  of  social  centers,  since  most  of 
their  activities  lie  in  the  field  of  school  sociology  rather  than 
hygiene.  Full  information  concerning  their  organization 
and  activity  may  be  secured  either  from  the  Extension 
Division  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  or  from  the  Depart- 
ment of  Recreation  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation.  In  gen- 


250  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

eral  it  may  be  said  that  they  add  little  to  the  cost  of  educa- 
tion, and  add  greatly  to  its  effectiveness. 

Survey  suggestions.  In  the  discussion  of  this  chapter 
quotations  have  extensively  been  made  from  three  reports 
of  recreation  surveys.  Each  of  these  survey  reports  ends 
with  a  brief  list  of  recommendations  for  the  town  surveyed. 
The  following  quotations  taken  from  the  work  of  Mr.  Han- 
mer  and  Mr.  Perry  in  Springfield,  Mr.  Knight  in  Ipswich, 
and  Dr.  Johnson  in  Cleveland,  represent  the  practical  sug- 
gestions made  by  recreation  experts  to  fit  the  needs  of  three 
"real-life  situations."  They  are  included  in  the  present  dis- 
cussion because  in  a  brief  way  they  outline  what  the  work 
of  a  school  division  of  physical  training  and  recreation  is 
gradually  becoming. 

Springfield.  Recommendations  for  treating  the  Spring- 
field situation  are  given  in  great  detail,  with  concrete  sug- 
gestions concerning  the  wording  of  city  ordinances  and  the 
like.  A  summary  of  these  recommendations  is  as  follows:  — 

1.  Equip  and  use  school  yards  and  some  park  space  for  play. 

2.  Provide  for  a  centrally  located  athletic  field  for  the  schools. 

3.  Place  the  administration  of  all  playground  and  school  athletic 
activities  in  charge  of  the  director  of  physical  training  and 
play. 

4.  Teach  games  for  playground  and  home-yard  use  at  play 
periods  on  school  yards  and  other  public  playgrounds. 

5.  Remodel  and  equip  school  buildings  for  social-center  uses. 

6.  Provide  for  administration  of  social  centers  through  additions 
to  the  staff  of  the  superintendent  of  schools. 

7.  Encourage  the  cooperation  of  neighborhood  organizations  in 
the  direction  and  support  of  the  schoolhouse  centers. 

8.  Organize  school  athletic  leagues  for  both  boys  and  girls,  thus 
insuring  proper  supervision  of  such  activities  and  adaptation 
of  exercises  to  the  needs  of  the  different  age  and  sex  groups. 

9.  Have  a  standing  city  committee  on  holiday  celebrations. 

10.  Organize  a  municipal  athletic  league  for  the  young  men  of 
the  city. 

11.  Provide  for  the  extension  of  Boy  Scouts  and  Camp-Fire  Girls. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION       251 

12.  See  that  there  is  proper  inspection  and  control  of  the  com- 
mercial amusements  of  the  city. 

13.  Have  a  representative  city  committee  on  recreation  to  be  re- 
sponsible for  a  progressive  and  balanced  development  of  all 
parts  of  the  city-wide  recreation  program. 

14.  Do  not  attempt  to  do  it  all  the  first  year.  Make  a  beginning 
and  work  steadily  toward  the  ultimate  plan. 

Ipswich.  As  is  the  case  with  the  Springfield  Report,  a 
large  portion  of  the  Ipswich  Report  relates  to  concrete  and 
detailed  suggestions  for  handling  the  recreation  situation. 
The  summary  of  these  recommendations  is  as  follows :  — 

1.  Physical  training  for  all  boys  and  girls  as  a  regular  part  of  the 
school  curriculum. 

2.  Teaching  of  games  for  home  and  playground  use.  The  exten- 
sive use  of  group  games  in  physical  training,  and  the  use  of  the 
athletic-badge  test  and  group  athletics. 

3.  The  employment  of  a  physical  director  and  play  supervisor, 
and  a  woman  member  of  the  faculty,  with  special  training,  to 
care  for  the  physical  work  of  the  girls. 

4.  Equipment  of  each  school  and  school  yard  with  sufficient 
apparatus  to  enable  teachers  to  make  the  best  possible  use  of 
recess  time.  Grading  of  school  property  wherever  necessary 
to  render  it  most  useful. 

5.  The  use  of  the  Manning  High  School  as  a  social  center,  and 
that  such  use  be  definitely  encouraged  and  stimulated. 

6.  That  in  the  next  school  building  erected,  a  gymnasium  with 
lockers  and  shower  baths  be  provided.  That  it  be  equipped 
with  movable  furniture  so  that  it  may  be  efficiently  used. 

7.  That  the  athletic  field  be  equipped  with  a  running-track, 
tennis-courts,  and  the  like,  and  that  a  small  field  house  be 
erected. 

8.  That  the  ground  in  the  rear  of  the  Burley  School  be  adequately 
developed  as  a  children's  playground. 

9.  The  organization  of  a  Public  Athletic  League. 

10.  A  permanent  Celebration  Committer. 

11.  The  extension  of  Boy  Scouts,  Camp-Fire  Girls,  and  other 
^similar  organizations. 

12.  That  the  commercial  amusements  should  at  all  times  be  safe- 
guarded. 


252  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

13.  That  the  administration  of  the  use  of  the  athletic  field  and 
steep-bank  playground  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  school 
department. 

14.  Do  not  attempt  to  do  all  this  the  first  year.  Make  a  definite 
beginning  and  then  work  steadily  toward  the  ultimate  plan. 

We  realize  that  it  takes  time,  thought,  and  continued  effort  to 
develop  a  system  of  public  recreation  in  any  community.  The  first 
thing  to  be  done  in  Ipswich  is  to  engage  a  physical  director  who 
as  he  studies  the  needs  can  best  advise  as  to  further  steps.  The 
program  as  outlined  above  will  no  doubt  be  modified  as  the  work 
progresses.  It  represents  an  ideal  to  work  toward  rather  than  a 
hard-and-fast  line  of  procedure.  No  work  of  this  kind  can  succeed 
without  the  cooperation  of  the  community  at  large.  Ipswich  will 
never  have  adequate  provision  for  public  recreation  until  Ipswich 
really  wants  it. 

Cleveland.  The  last  few  pages  of  the  Cleveland  Educa- 
tion Survey  monograph,  entitled  Education  Through  Recre- 
ation, read  as  follows :  — 

1.  Cleveland  is  extraordinarily  well  equipped  in  plants  and  in 
teaching  force  for  the  conduct  and  administration  of  recreation 
in  the  public  schools.  Many  of  these  advantages,  however,  are 
neglected. 

The  recesses  should  not  be  omitted,  and  they  should  be  organ- 
ized. This  does  not  imply  formality  at  recess.  It  does  imply  study 
and  organization,  so  that  the  recess  may  count  for  the  most  possi- 
ble, physically  and  socially.  More  "steam"  is  blown  off  in  a  skill- 
fully organized,  than  in  an  unorganized,  recess,  and  the  social 
value  is  certainly  far  greater. 

Better  still,  groups  might  take  their  recesses  in  rotation:  out- 
doors in  pleasant  weather,  in  the  gymnasium  or  playroom  in  un- 
pleasant weather.  This  would  increase  the  value  of  the  recess  and 
might  be  made  the  means  of  relieving  congestion.  To  some  extent 
this  has  already  been  done. 

2.  Schoolroom  and  indoor  recreation  should,  so  far  as  possible, 
become  outdoor  recreation.  The  play  periods  should  be  longer. 
The  plays  and  games  should  reflect  the  deep,  instinctive  interests 
of  children  of  the  ages  concerned.  They  should  perpetuate  the  play 
traditions  of  the  nation.  The  plays  and  games  employed  should 
not  be  devised  at  the  desk  —  manufactured  out  of  whole  cloth; 
they  should  be  the  growth  of  generations. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION 

3.  There  should  be  a  relatively  larger  element  of  free  play  in  the 
kindergartens  and  lower  grades.  The  waste  places,  between  wings 
of  buildings  and  elsewhere,  small  and  at  presenl  for  the  mosl  part 
useless,  should  be  thoughtfully  equipped  for  the  little  tots  of  the 
school.  With  a  slight  expenditure  these  desert  places  can  be  made 
to  blossom  as  the  rose  educationally  and  socially,  to  the  relief  of 
congestion,  to  the  aid  of  teachers,  and  to  the  immeasurable  benefit 
of  the  children. 

4.  The  apparatus  should  be  taken  from  storage,  and  the  school 
playgrounds  made  inviting  to  pupils  out  of  school  hours.  This  will 
necessitate  additional  supervision,  which  should  be  provided. 

5.  The  swimming-pools  that  have  been  begun  should  be  com- 
pleted, and  both  swimming-pools  and  gymnasiums  should  be  jus- 
tified by  the  use  made  of  them. 

6.  Far  more  attention  should  be  paid  in  the  elementary  grades 
to  hardy,  organized  games.  There  both  numbers  and  needs  <\«  q 
the  adolescent  needs)  predominate,  as  compared  to  the  high  school. 
In  Cleveland,  schools  can  do  larger  service  with  plays  and  games  in 
the  grades  than  in  the  high  schools.  It  would  be  better  to  turn 
the  whole  corps  of  physical-training  teachers  into  the  elementary 
grades  and  neglect  the  high  schools  than  to  practice  economy  so 
unequally  at  the  expense  of  the  grades  as  at  present.  The  whole 
system  of  play  and  recreation  for  the  grades  should  be  revised  with 
reference  to  educational  and  social  aspects. 

7.  The  general  question  of  the  wider  use  of  school  plants  for 
play  and  recreation  is  complicated  by  local  conditions.  But  in 
general  it  may  be  said  that  the  schools  contribute  relatively  little 
to  the  social  activities  of  the  several  neighborhoods.  This  subject 
is  considered  more  exhaustively  in  the  section  of  the  Survey  Report 
entitled,  "Educational  Extension." 

8.  Some' reorganization  of  the  educational  corps  should  take 
place  with  a  view  to  efficient  administration  of  play  and  recreation 
from  a  broad  educational  and  social  standpoint.  This  would  lead 
to  a  far  greater  influence  of  the  school  upon  the  out-of-school  life 
of  the  community.  Through  lack  of  greater  influence  of  the  school 
during  out-of-school  hours,  there  is  a  great  social  leakage  for  which 
the  city  must  pay. 

9.  The  school  is  the  natural  and  logical  agency  for  the  safe- 
guarding of  the  great  fundamental  interests  of  children  and  youth. 
Each  year  discloses  more  and  more  clearly  that  the  school  is  the 
one  institution  we  have  yet  conceived  that  is  best  fitted  adequately 


254  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

to  conserve  these  interests  and  utilize  them  for  educational  and 
social  progress.  Opportunities  that  came  as  a  matter  of  course  to 
children  a  generation  ago  do  not  come  to  many  children  now  unless 
they  are  specifically  planned  for  by  some  agency  other  than  the 
home.  Mel  wisely  by  the  community,  this  seeming  handicap  may, 
in  the  end,  result  in  a  great  and  new  found  social  strength. 

10.  Play  is  more  than  recreation.  If  its  educational  significance 
is  real  in  the  kindergarten  period,  it  is  real  in  every  subsequent 
stage  of  growth  and  development.  Rightly  conceived,  play  is  a 
most  efficient  met  hod  of  education  for  life,  for  work,  for  social  serv- 
ice. The  fact  that  we  do  not  yet  know  how  to  make  full  use  of 
play  in  education  need  not  and  should  not  prevent  the  utilization 
of  play,  to  the  full  extent  to  which  we  are  prepared,  for  the  tremen- 
dous social  service  it  can  render. 

11.  In  the  Cleveland  school  system,  as  in  that  of  every  large 
progressive  city,  there  should  be:  — 

a.  An  officer  whose  entire  time  should  be  devoted  to  giving  a 
social  interpretation  to  educational  work,  and  an  educational  inter- 
pretation to  social  work.  He  should  know  the  general  fields  of 
sociology  and  education,  and  should  know  intimately  the  fields  of 
play  and  recreation.  He  should  be  to  the  social  functions  of  the 
school  what  the  director  is  to  the  business  management,  and  what 
the  superintendent  of  instruction  is  to  the  academic  work.  He 
should  organize  and  utilize  the  physical  properties  of  the  school 
and,  so  far  as  practicable,  the  existing  educational  corps  for  the 
directing  of  the  play  and  recreational  interests  of  the  pupils  and 
the  community  towards  constructive  education  and  social  progress. 

b.  An  officer  whose  function  is  to  organize  and  direct  especially 
the  active  plays,  games,  sports,  pastimes,  and  athletics  of  the  sys- 
tem. He  should  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  social  and  educa- 
tional aspects  of  play  and  recreation  and  a  technical  knowledge  of 
physical  training.  Cleveland  has  at  present  a  supervisor  of  physical 
training  having  but  limited  authority  in  the  elementary  schools, 
and  almost  none  in  the  high  schools. 

c.  An  officer  whose  function  it  is  to  supervise  the  play  of  young 
children  to  eight  or  nine  years  of  age.  She  should  have  a  thorough 
training  in  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  kindergarten,  plus  the 
general  social  and  educational  background  of  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  play  and  recreation.  She  should  be  a  part  of  the  division 
of  physical  education  and  not  independent  of  it  as  she  now  is  in 
Cleveland. 


PHYSICAL  TRAINING  AND  RECREATION 

d.  Besides  the  officers  mentioned  above,  there  Bhould  be  one  \\  h<» 
is  trained  to  organize  and  direct  the  almost  universal,  bill  greatly 
wasted  or  misused,  dramatic  interests;  one  who  can  utilize  simi- 
larly the  musical  interests  for  educational  and  social  prog  me 
the  nature  and  nurturing  interests;  one  the  constructive;  one  the 
eesthetic. 

These  great  lines  of  human  interest  and  endeavor  an-  replete 
with  recreational  as  well  as  educational  opportunity;  they  have 
their  place  as  avocations  quite  as  truly  as  vocations.  The  van 
official  functions  mentioned  might,  of  course,  be  delegate  d  to  i 
isting  officers,  and  sometimes  several  might  be  combined  in  one 
person.  But  educational  and  recreational  problems  must  be  seen 
from  each  of  these  angles  by  some  one  who  feels  the  burden  of  re- 
sponsibility. Education  needs  play,  and  play  needs  education. 
The  problem  of  adult  recreation  is  but  a  phase  of  the  problem  <>f 
the  play  of  children  and  youth. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  How  well  worked  out  is  the  pedagogy  of  physical  training  and  mere** 
tion?  Where  is  more  study  needed?  How  far  do  the  results  actually 
gained  in  teaching  justify  the  school  superintendent  in  giving  physical- 
training  teachers  more  hours  on  the  weekly  program? 

2.  How  may  the  value  of  a  physical-training  teacher's  work  hi"  judged? 
What  objective  measures  may  be  usc«  1  ? 

3.  Make  a  survey  of  recreational  opportunities  in  your  community.  I  \>  m 
widely  are  they  used?  Where  they  are  not  used,  what  is  the  reason? 
What  might  be  a  remedy? 

4.  Suppose  that  in  a  rough  neighborhood  when  children  are  admitted 
to  the  playground  they  break  windows,  destroy  apparatus,  and  gather 
at  the  playground  at  night  for  anti-social  purposes.  What  should  the 
school  authorities  do? 

5.  Do  children  from  comfortable  homes  in  suburban  towns  need  play- 
grounds or  "wider  use"  privileges? 

6.  How  far  may  schools  depend  on  volunteer  help  in  conducting  re 
tional  activities? 

7.  In  one  community  posture  work  for  children  with  pronounced  defects 
was  prohibited  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  fair  to  specialise  by 
giving  to  small  groups  of  children  training  which,  because  of  its  coi 
could  not  be  provided  for  all.    How  would  you  meet  this  argument? 

8.  Collect  figures  on  physiological  age,  and  present  them  in  such  a  way 
as  to  show  the  distribution  of  each  age  among  various  grades  in  ele- 
mentary and  high  schools. 

9.  What  games  are  now  being  most  used  in  classrooms?  On  playgrounds? 


256  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

How  far  will  these  successfully  compete  with  the  popular  activities 
of  the  street  gang?   What  changes  would  you  suggest? 

10.  What  is  the  average  "professional  life"  of  the  physical-training 
teacher?  To  what  other  occupations  does  it  lead?  How  important  is 
this  question  to  leaders  of  the  educational  recreation  movement? 

11.  Should  teachers  be  expected  to  join  in  organized  sports  with  their 
pupils? 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Hanmer,  Lee  F.,  and  Perry,  Clarence  A     E ■creation  in  Springfield,  Illinois. 
Department  of  Recreation,  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York, 
(1914.) 
An  exceedingly  interesting  survey  report. 

Johnson,  George  E.    Education  Through  Recreation.    Cleveland  Education 
Survey  Monograph.    Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York.     (1916.) 
One  of  the  most  recent  and  comprehensive  of  the  recreation  surveys. 

Knight,  Howard  R.  Play  and  Recreation  in  a  Town  of  6,000.  (A  Recreation 
Survey   of   Ipswich,    Massachusetts.)      Department   of   Recreation, 

Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York.    (1915.) 
One  of  the  earliest  and  best  of  recreation  surve.\ 

Perry,  Clarence  A.     Wider  Use  of  the  School  Plant.    New  York,  Survey 
Associates,  Inc.    (1910.) 
Standard  reference  on  subject. 

The  Playground  —  a  recreation  magazine.  (1  Madison  Avenue,  New  York 
City.) 

Will  furnish  helpful  suggestions. 

Playground  and  Recreation  Association  of  America,  1  Madison  Avenue, 
New  York  City,  issues  material  which  is  especially  helpful  in  studying 
the  question  of  schoolathletic  leagues. 

Department  of  Recreation,  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1 30  East  22d  Street, 
New  York,  issues  various  publications  on  recreation,  wider  use,  etc. 

Boy  Scouts  of  America.    (200  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City.) 

Camp-Fire  Girls.    (461  Fourth  Avenue,  New  York  City.) 

Both  of  these  organizations  will    be  able  to  give   considerable  help  in  outlining 
recreational  activities  for  school  children. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN 

Two  groups.    As  we  have  found  in  earlier  chapters,  the 

compulsory  education  law  has  had  many  and  varied  effec 
When  we  insist  that  all  children  must  attend  school,  we 
assume  responsibility  for  sick  children  as  well  as  healthy 
children;  for  the  extraordinarily  bright  and  the  extraordi- 
narily stupid.  We  herd  together  within  the  confines  of  the 
public  schools  children  of  all  kinds  and  cl  .  and  must 

therefore  hold  ourselves  responsible  for  furnishing  to  them 
the  sort  of  educational  opportunity  of  which  they  can  b 
take  advantage.   It  is  in  recognition  of  this  duty  which  falls 
upon  the  State  that  we  are  beginning  to  organize  ial 

classes  for  exceptional  children. 

Children  who  are  irregular,  who  do  not  fit  into  the  ordi- 
nary scheme  of  things,  may  be  divided  in  general  into  two 
great  classes:  First,  those  who  will  be  called  upon  to  1 
the  ordinary  life  of  the  ordinary  citizen  after  leaving  sch<  i 
and  second,  those  who  will  never  be  able  to  mingle  with 
society  at  large,  but  will  always  be  dependent  upon  otto 
for  support  or  guidance.    These  two  claw>;  are  described 
by  Dr.  David  Mitchell,  in  his  monograph  on  Schools  awl 
Classes  for  Exceptional  Children,  under  the  headinj      "So- 
cially Competent"  and  "Socially  Incompetent."   Under  the 
title   "Socially  Competent''   Dr.   Mitchell   would   include 
such  children  as  the  blind,  the  deaf,  the  crippled,  the  ansem 
those  suffering  with  speech  defects,  foreign  children,  and 
most  pf  the  incorrigible  cases.  All  of  these  he  holds,  althou 
badly  handicapped  at  the  start,  may  nevertheless  be  p 
pared  to  fit  themselves  for  independent  existence  in  the 


258  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

community.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  certain  children, 
such  as  the  epileptic,  feeble-minded,  and  insane,  who  are 
socially  incompetent.  When  they  reach  the  stage  of  adult- 
hood, they  will  still  remain  a  burden  upon  society. 

Different  educational  treatment.  If  the  distinction  be- 
tween these  two  classes  be  valid,  it  should  be  recognized  in 
the  type  of  education  provided  for  the  children  while  they 
are  yet  in  school.  Those  who  will  be  forced  to  mingle  with 
the  rest  of  the  world  on  equal  terms  after  reaching  adult  life 
should  be  given  every  opportunity  for  such  association  dur- 
ing childhood.  Blind  children,  for  example,  should  not  be 
segregated  in  separate  schools  and  institutions  where  they 
will  meet  none  but  the  blind,  and  where  special  care  will 
be  given  to  them  because  of  their  infirmities.  Rather  they 
should  be  given  every  opportunity  to  associate  with  seeing 
children  in  a  world  of  seeing  people.  Some  special  care  they 
will  need.  They  probably  must  have  separate  teachers,  but 
just  so  far  as  their  work  can  be  carried  on  with  seeing  chil- 
dren to  that  extent  will  their  school  life  resemble  the  real 
life  into  which  they  must  shortly  go.  For  all  such  children, 
then,  special  classes  must  be  established,  but  these  classes 
should  be  located  in  large  public  schools  which  normal 
children  are  also  attending.  Just  as  foreign  children  receive 
some  of  their  best  lessons  in  English  by  playing  with 
English-speaking  children,  so  also  the  blind,  the  deaf,  and 
the  crippled  will  receive  valuable  education  at  the  hands  of 
their  more  fortunate  fellows. 

The  socially  incompetent,  on  the  other  hand,  will  never 
associate  on  equal  terms  with  normal  people.  The  require- 
ments of  adult  life  for  them  are  very  different  from  those  of 
normal  people.  Their  school  education  must  necessarily  be 
different  in  type  and  material.  To  the  lower  types  of  feeble- 
minded children,  for  example,  it  is  a  foolish  waste  of  time 
to  give  lessons  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  to  say 


EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  259 

nothing  of  history  and  grammar,  because  they  abso- 

lutely incapable  of  taking  advantage  of  the  instruction.  The 
insane,  the  feeble-minded,  and  the  epileptic  should  be  housed 

in  buildings  of  their  own  where  they  will  not  be  forced  l<> 
assoeiate  with  normal  children,  and  where  special  education 
can  be  giyen  them  of  the  type  from  which  they  can  tnosl 
profit. 

The  socially  competent.  Most  of  the  work  for  the  blind, 
the  semi-blind,  and  the  deaf  must  necessarily  be  carried  <>n 
in  separate  classrooms  under  special  teachers  and  with  spe- 
cial  apparatus.  They  will  only  be  able  to  take  part  in  exer- 
cises with  normal  children  in  a  few  subjects.  But  they  can, 
at  least,  be  taught  to  play  with  normal  children,  and  to 
feel  at  home  when  associating  with  them.  The  physically 
weak  or  actually  crippled  can  associate  witli  normal  children 
to  a  much  larger  degree.  Usually  these  children  can  t.i 
part  in  all  but  physical  exercises,  and  while  sometimes  school 
hours  must  be  shortened  and  home  preparation  curtailed 
entirely,  nevertheless  the  work  of  the  handicapped  and  the 
normal  can  be  carried  on  side  by  side,  so  that  each  group 
will  benefit  from  association  with  the  other.  Children  who 
have  defects  of  speech  usually  may  remain  in  the  regular 
classrooms  with  normal  children,  but  should  leave  the  db 
at  frequent  intervals  during  the  week  for  special  instruction 
by  the  speech  teacher.  Foreign  children  must  often  be  kept 
in  separate  classes  the  first  few  weeks. until  they  understand 
the  rudiments  of  English.  They  can,  however,  join  with  the 
regular  children  in  such  exercises  as  singing,  gymnastics, 
and  the  like,  and  as  their  ability  to  handle  English  in  en 
they  should  gradually  be  introduced  to  working  with  other 
children  of  their  own  age. 

Incorrigible  children  present  a  more  difficult  and  per- 
plexing problem.  Just  as  in  outside  life  the  modern  tendency 
is  to  give  a  second  chance  to  new  otl'enders,  to  place  them  on 


260  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

parole,  etc.,  so  with  the  incorrigible  child  it  is  probably  wise 
to  try  the  different  forms  of  probation  before  actually  plac- 
ing the  child  in  a  special  class.  If,  however,  the  child  becomes 
so  unruly  that  he  interferes  with  the  work  of  the  classroom, 
he  should  be  placed  in  a  special  class  in  the  regular  school 
building,  and  kept  there  until  he  can  be  returned  to  his 
proper  room  or  else  until  he  has  proved  himself  so  anti- 
social in  nature  that  he  has  to  be  placed  in  a  parental  or 
truant  school  and  separated  from  normal  children. 

The  socially  incompetent.  No  epileptic  child  should  ever 
be  allowed  to  belong  to  a  class  with  normal  children,  nor 
should  he  be  put  in  the  unclassified  special  group  with  immi- 
grant children,  crippled,  blind,  and  the  like,  as  is  sometimes 
carelessly  done.  If  he  must  be  in  a  group  with  other  than 
epileptic,  he  probably  belongs  with  the  feeble-minded,  but 
wherever  possible  should  have  a  class  by  himself.  Insane 
children  are  rarely  found  in  the  public  schools.  Usually 
they  become  so  difficult  to  manage  that  they  are  early  taken 
out  and  cared  for  at  home  or  in  private  institutions.  It  is 
the  feeble-minded  who  form  the  largest  group  of  socially 
incompetent  children  among  school  classes.  These  feeble- 
minded range  from  borderland  cases  to  profound  idiots. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  make  an  exact  estimate  of  the 
number  which  will  be  found  in  any  system,  because  as  a 
matter  of  fact  authorities  have  not  yet  agreed  as  to  what 
they  shall  call  feeble-minded.  Roughly  speaking,  about  one 
third  of  all  the  children  in  the  public  school  system  are  back- 
ward in  their  classes.  Of  these  some  are  backward  because 
of  physical  defects,  some  because  of  late  entrance,  some  be- 
cause of  poor  teaching,  and  some  because  of  varying  degrees 
and  types  of  mental  disability. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  school  administration,  feeble- 
minded children  may  be  divided  roughly  into  three  groups. 
In  the  first  and  highest  group  belong  those  children  who  are 


EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  2G1 

dull  and  slow.  They  cannot  keep  up  with  the  regular  school 
work.  They  can  be  taught  to  do  simple  reading  and  writing, 
but  will  never  read  very  much  for  pleasure.  Mosl  of  the 
children  in  this  group  will  be  able  to  carry  work  up  to  about 
the  fourth  or  fifth  grade  in  difficulty.  These  children  would 
not  ordinarily  be  called  feeble-minded  by  the  layman.  It 
is  only  the  psychologist  or  the  experienced  teacher  who 
realizes  that  they  are  sub-normal.  Below  them  comes  the 
second  group  of  feeble-minded  children,  distinctly  inferior 
to  the  first.  These  children  may  be  taught  to  read  and  write, 
but  such  achievement  is  merely  a  trick.  They  can  make 
practically  no  use  of  it.  They  do  not  know  what  the  words 
they  read  actually  mean,  nor  the  purpose  of  what  they  arc 
writing.  These  children  can,  however,  under  careful  direc- 
tion, be  taught  a  simple  trade  in  which  little  skill  is  required. 
They  can  usually  do  good  manual-training  work  which  does 
not  require  thinking,  and  can  be  kept  happy  and  useful  in 
a  special  class  under  a  teacher  trained  for  such  work.  The 
third  group  of  feeble-minded  children  who  arc  found  in  the 
public  schools  consists  of  those  who  are  of  such  low-grade 
mentality  that  they  cannot  with  any  profit  do  even  the 
simpler  forms  of  school  work.  They  can,  with  careful  direc- 
tion, be  trained  to  take  care  of  themselves,  to  fasten  their 
clothing,  to  attend  to  their  daily  wants,  to  feed  themselves, 
and  to  amuse  themselves  with  simple  toys. 

In  any  large  system  the  children  of  these  three  groups 
should  be  separated  into  different  classes  with  different 
teachers.  These  teachers  should  have  varying  degrees  of 
training.  The  teacher  in  the  highest  group  needs  to  be  skilled 
in  the  training  of  feeble-minded  children.  The  teacher  in 
the  middle  group  needs  considerably  less  training,  and 
should  naturally  expect  to  receive  a  lower  salary.  For  the 
third  group  a  regularly  trained  teacher  is  probably  not 
necessary,  since  any  one  who  can  keep  the  children  happy 


262  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

and  lead  them  in  simple  amusements  will  answer  the  need 
successfully.  It  seems  evident  that  the  higher  salaries  and 
the  better-trained  teachers  should  be  devoted  to  those 
classes  of  socially  handicapped  children  which  have  been 
described  in  earlier  paragraphs.  It  is  for  these  children  who 
are  to  be  regularly  independent  members  of  society  that  the 
greatest  care  and  the  best  teaching  should  be  provided. 

Assignment  to  classes.  It  is  important  if  special  classes 
for  the  socially  competent  and  socially  incompetent  children 
be  established  in  the  public  schools,  that  admission  to  these 
classes  shall  depend  upon  something  more  than  the  teach- 
er's whim.  The  judgment  of  teachers  as  to  the  mentality 
of  children  has  been  repeatedly  shown  to  be  unreliable. 
Admission  to  the  special  classes  should  be  handled  by  the 
director  of  school  hygiene.  In  all  cases,  excepting  probably 
the  crippled  and  the  ansemic,  candidates  should  first  undergo 
a  thorough  mental  examination,  given  by  an  experienced 
psychologist  who  applies  certain  standardized  mental  tests, 
and  determines  the  mental  intelligence  level  of  the  child. 

Such  psychological  examination  should  not  be  confined 
solely  to  children  who  are  suspected  of  being  feeble-minded. 
It  will  often  be  found  true  that  children  who  are  supposed 
to  be  deaf  or  blind  are  also  feeble-minded,  and  therefore 
cannot  profit  from  the  instruction  given  in  special  classes 
for  the  blind  or  deaf.  Speech  defects  are  also  frequently 
associated  with  mental  deficiency,  and  the  admission  of 
feeble-minded  children  to  speech-training  classes  should  be 
carefully  avoided.  In  a  similar  way  candidates  for  the  other 
special  classes  should  undergo  physical  examinations  by  the 
doctor  especially  versed  in  the  particular  class  of  defects 
under  consideration. 

Not  only  should  admission  and  discharge  from  special 
classes  depend  on  the  decision  of  the  child  hygiene  depart- 
ment, but  the  work  carried  on  in  those  classes  should  also 


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EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  M 

be  under  the  direct  supervision  of  that  department,  so  that 
matters  of  heating,  ventilating,  and  physical  condition  of 
the  children  will  be  carefully  kept  under  observation. 

Open-air  schools  and  fresh-air  classes.  Paralleling  the 
movement  in  favor  of  special  classes  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren has  come  the  open-air  school  movement.  This  w. 
primarily  established  for  tubercular  or  pre-tubercular  chil- 
dren, and  is  gradually  spreading  to  normal  children  as  well. 
The  open-air  class  is,  as  its  name  suggests,  a  class  where 
children  and  teachers  study  outdoors  in  the  open  air  rather 
than  in  a  closed  schoolroom.  Many  of  these  classes  have 
been  established  on  the  roofs  of  buildings;  others  have  been 
held  outdoors  under  tents  or  on  ferry-boats.  St  ill  others 
have  been  held  in  regular  schoolrooms  with  windows  com- 
pletely removed  from  the  frame,  so  that  there  is  plenty  of 
access  to  light  and  air. 

The  three  essentials.  There  are  three  essentials  for  a  suc- 
cessful open-air  school.  These  are,  fresh  air,  warm  clothing, 
and  good  food.  No  one  of  these  can  be  omitted  without 
harmful  results  to  the  pupils.  The  clothing  should  cons 
of  warm  outer  wraps,  head  coverings,  and  some  method  of 
keeping  the  feet  warm.  We  all  know  that  the  mosl  effective 
way  to  keep  warm  is  to  prevent  draughts  from  chilling  the 
body.  This  means  that  there  should  be  no  cracks  or  crevi 
in  the  clothing  through  which  cold  air  can  enter.  Children 
should  be  provided  with  warm  shoes  and  stockings.  Some- 
times heavy  felt  boots  are  found  desirable.  In  addition  they 
should  be  provided  with  sitting-out  bags,  which  are  made 
on  the  same  principle  as  sleeping-bags,  and  are  fastened  to 
the  chairs  in  such  a  way  that  the  children's  bodies,  from  the 
waist  down,  are  thoroughly  protected  from  draughts.  In 
thev  so-called  "cold-air"  rooms,  which  are  not  officially 
designated  as  open-air  classrooms,  it  is  common  to  find 
the  children  provided  with  no  means  of  keeping  their  feet 


264  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

warm.  Extra  sweaters  are  usually  the  only  wraps  at  hand. 
The  danger  of  chilled  feet  is  serious,  and  extra  precaution 
should  be  taken  against  it.  During  comparatively  warm 
weather  it  is  also  important  to  see  to  it  that  no  child  wears 
too  heavy  clothing.  The  teacher  should  be  on  the  alert  to 
detect  signs  of  over-heating,  such  as  flushed  cheeks,  damp 
hair,  perspiration,  and  the  like,  and  in  such  cases  should 
require  the  children  to  remove  part  of  their  outer  clothing. 
Over-heating  is  a  frequent  cause  of  colds. 

It  is  essential  that  children  in  open-air  classes  should  be 
provided  with  extra  amounts  of  food.  Food  provides  fuel 
for  the  body,  and  is  rapidly  turned  into  heat.  If  children 
are  not  given  extra  food,  they  are  apt  to  become  unduly 
chilled,  and  will  not  benefit  by  the  open-air  class  work.  It  is 
also  important  that  this  food  should  be  hot.  Cold  lunches, 
even  though  appetizing  and  nourishing,  do  not  seem  to  be 
effective.  Hot  nourishing  soup  or  cocoa  made  with  milk 
may  often  be  served  to  the  children  in  addition  to  lunches 
they  may  bring  from  home.  For  children  who  are  ill  or 
ansemic  it  is  especially  important  that  large  amounts  of 
nourishing  food  be  provided,  under  the  direction  of  the  school 
dietitian  or  physician. 

Montclair's  experiment.  There  are  many  conflicting 
reports  as  to  the  value  of  open-air  classes.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  apparently  that  children  who  are  convales- 
cent or  almost  on  the  verge  of  tuberculosis,  when  placed  in 
an  open-air  class  with  warm  clothing  and  plentiful  good 
food,  will  frequently  gain  in  weight,  become  strong  and  well, 
and  actually  do  as  much  or  more  class  work  than  normal 
children  of  the  same  ages  in  corresponding  grades.  In  other 
cases  apparently  careful  experiment  has  seemed  to  show 
that  open-air  classes  are  no  more  valuable  to  children  than 
the  regular  traditional  class  of  the  public  school.  In  Mont- 
clair,  for  example,  Superintendent  Bliss  reports  on  an  experi- 


EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  2C> 

ment  with  open-air  classes  in  which  extra  feeding  was  sup- 
plied, and  where  each  experimental  class  was  accompanied 
by  a  control  class  in  the  same  school,  consisting  of  the  same 
number  of  children,  studying  under  normal  conditions  in  the 
ordinary  warm,  well-ventilated  schoolroom.  His  results  are 
rather  surprising. 

He  finds,  for  example,  that  children  in  the  heated  school- 
room gain  more  rapidly  in  weight  than  children  in  the  <»jm:i- 
air  class.  The  number  of  absences  from  cold,  sore  throat, 
and  contagious  diseases  were  notably  more  in  the  open-air 
classes  than  in  the  regular  classes.  Moreover,  carefully 
administered  mental  tests  seem  to  show  that  there  \N' 
practically  no  differences  apparent  either  in  the  alertm 
of  the  children  or  in  their  ability  to  succeed  in  whichever 
class  they  had  happened  to  join.  According  to  the  results  of 
this  study  Dr.  Bliss  would  feel  that  the  value  of  the  open- 
air  class  in  Montclair  is  distinctly  to  be  questioned.  ] [e  sug- 
gests, however,  that  a  possible  explanation  of  the  suco 
in  other  cities  is  that  in  most  cases  the  ventilating  systems 
of  schoolhouses  are  distinctly  inferior  to  those  in  use  in 
Montclair.  He  feels  that,  in  Montclair,  the  experiment 
was  one  concerning  the  comparative  value  of  cold  fresh  air 
versus  warm  fresh  air.  In  other  cities  he  thinks  the  experi- 
ment has  been  the  comparative  value  of  cold  fresh  air  versus 
warm  foul  air.  In  the  latter  case,  he  suggests,  it  is  probable 
that  the  open-air  class  would  have  distinctly  beneficial 
effects  upon  the  pupils.  In  finishing  his  report  Dr.  Bliss 
states  that  one  of  the  interesting  features  of  the  experiment 
was  that  the  parents  were  unanimously  in  favor  of  the  open- 
air  class  work.  They  claimed  that  almost  without  exception 
their  own  children  were  greatly  benefited  by  the  plan.  They 
asserted  that  children  were  less  nervous,  and  ale  and  slept 
better  than  ever  before. 

The  results  of  Dr.  Bliss's  experiment  are  not  conclusive, 


ogg  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

but  they  are  highly  suggestive.  That  open-air  classes  in 
most  cases  have  proved  beneficial  to  the  children  is  a  fact  so 
clearly  demonstrated  that  it  cannot  easily  be  shaken.  Ex- 
periments such  as  that  at  Montclair  do  indicate,  however, 
that  we  have  yet  to  learn  what  it  is  about  the  usual  open- 
air  class  which  functions  so  effectively.  Should  success  be 
attributed  to  low  temperature,  temperature  changes,  humid- 
ity, breezes,  special  feeding,  sleep  and  rest  periods,  ungraded 
classes,  picked  teachers,  or  to  a  combination  of  these  ele- 
ments? It  is  strongly  to  be  hoped  that  further  classes  will 
be  carried  on  under  experimental  conditions,  and  definite 
scientific  information  secured. 

QUESTION'S  FOR  STUDY  AXD  DISCUSSION 

1.  Is  it  better  to  have  one  large  open-air  school  for  a  community,  or  to 
have  single  open-air  classes  in  several  buildings?  One  building  espe- 
cially designed  for  feeble-minded  children,  or  "backward"  classes  in 
each  school?   What  should  be  done  with  incorrigible  cases? 

2.  Can  the  schools  properly  be  charged  with  caring  for  insane  children? 
For  feeble-minded?  For  epileptic?  At  what  age  should  such  depend- 
ents be  placed  in  institutions?  How  long  should  they  stay?  Why  may 
they  not  be  left  at  large?  What  means  of  dealing  with  the  problem 
other  than  segregation  have  been  suggested? 

3.  If  it  is  well  for  foreigners  to  associate  as  much  as  possible  with  English- 
speaking  children,  why  is  not  the  plan  of  placing  them  in  primary 
grades  and  promoting  them  as  they  learn  English  better  than  placing 
them  in  regular  classes  for  foreigners? 

4.  Suppose  that  you  have  in  your  school  system  separate  classes  for 
children  who  are  deaf,  blind,  crippled,  anaemic,  defective  in  speech, 
incorrigible,  foreign,  retarded  through  absence,  slow,  borderland, 
moderately  feeble-minded,  low-grade  feeble-minded,  normal,  and 
bright.  Arrange  these  classes  in  order  according  to  the  professional 
preparation  required  of  the  teachers  in  charge,  and  the  amount  of 
salary  you  would  be  willing  to  pay. 

5.  Suppose  you  are  in  charge  of  a  small  school  system  where  each  type 
of  mental,  physical,  or  social  handicap  is  represented  by  only  one  or 
two  children,  what  arrangements  would  you  make  to  care  for  them? 

6.  What  are  the  commonest  forms  of  mental  tests?  Into  what  general 
groups  do  they  fall?   What  quality  is  each  supposed  to  test? 

7.  If  open-air  classes  are  good  for  weak  children,  why  would  they  not  be 


EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  Wl 

desirable  for  all  children?   If  you  were  a  school  superintendent,  what 
proportion  of  your  rooms  would  you  turn  into  open-air  < ! 
Why?  If  funds  are  not  available  for  extra  feeding,  i^  it  better  to  have 
cold-air  rooms  without  school  feeding,  <>r  no!  to  have  any  open-air 

rooms  at  all? 
8.  In  the  ordinary  heated  classroom  where  there  is  no  other  form  of 
ventilation,  do  open  windows  in  a  warm  climate  furnish  more  or  less 
frequent  changes  of  air  than  in  a  cold  climate? 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.  Open-Air  Schools.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York. 
(1910.) 

Non-technical  account  of  the  history  and   essential  features  of  the  opeo-fth  n 
plan;  with  bibliography. 

Mitchell,  David.    Schools  and  Classes  for  Exceptional  Children.    Cleveland 

Education  Survey  Monograph.    Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York. 

(191G.) 

Best  discussion  of  the  theory  of  "socially  competent  is.  socially  incompetent  chil- 
dren." 

Psychological  Clinic.   Published  monthly.   Sec  files. 

Contains  many  suggestive  articles  on  treatment  of  mentally-defective  children. 

Terman,  L.  M.    The  Measurement  of  Intelligence.    Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany.   (1910.) 

Readable  statement  of  the  problem,  with  careful  direction*  fur  giving  mei 
together  with  a  careful  revision  and  description  of  the  I  HOD  tetfa  T>r  into 

gence. 

Whipple,  G.  M.    Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests.    Warwick  c*  York. 
Baltimore.    (2  vols.,  1914,  1915.) 

Comprehensive  account  of  mental  tests  commonly  used. 

Witmer,  Lightner.   The  Special  Class  for  Backward  Children.   University 
Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa.    Psychological  Clinic  Press,    (1911.) 

Readable  account  of  an  educational  experiment  with  backward  children. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

SCHOOL  FEEDING 

The  argument  for  school  feeding.  The  three  meals  a  day 
to  which  the  adult  American  has  become  accustomed  are 
spaced  at  too  lonu;  intervals  one  from  the  other  for  the  com- 
fort and  health  of  most  children.  The  growing  child  needs 
something  to  eat  in  the  middle  of  the  morning  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  afternoon,  as  well  as  at  morning,  noon,  and 
night.  Were  he  at  home  he  probably  would  receive  extra 
food  at  these  periods,  but  when  schools  are  in  session,  he 
must  either  eat  a  hasty  lunch  at  recess  or  go  without  extra 
food  during  the  several  hours  between  breakfast  and  the 
noon  meal.  Moreover,  many  children  are  so  situated  that 
they  cannol  go  home  in  the  middle  of  the  day  for  a  hot  meal. 
In  some  cases  the  schools  are  at  too  great  a  distance  from 
the  house,  in  others  the  parents  are  absent  during  the  middle 
of  the  day  and  cannot  prepare  hot  meals  for  their  children. 
In  all  these  cases  three  things  may  happen:  the  child  may 
go  without  any  food  during  the  recess  or  noon  period,  he 
may  bring  a  cold  lunch  from  home,  or  he  may  purchase  from 
neighboring  stores  and  pushcarts. 

Very  few  people  realize  the  enormous  amounts  of  money 
which  are  spent  each  year  by  school  children  for  pickles, 
cakes,  and  candy,  to  eat  during  school  recesses.  In  large 
cities  the  pushcart  business  makes  literally  thousands  of 
dollars  a  year  from  this  source  alone,  and  in  fact  so  impor- 
tant has  the  children's  trade  become  that  pushcart  men  and 
near-by  store  owners  have  actually  secured  injunctions 
against  school  authorities  prohibiting  the  sale  of  candy  or 
ice  cream  to  school  children,  on  the  grounds  that  such  sales 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 

injure  the  natural  trade  of  the  food  purveyors  in  the  com- 
munity. 

It  is  because  of  the  fact  that  children  ueed  food  betwi 
meals,  and  that  children  are  actually  now  provided  with 
money  and  are  buying  the  food  from  neighborhood  dealers, 
that  the  organizers  of  the  school-lunch   movement    ha 
urged  the  necessity  of  providing  such  food,  prepared  under 
direct  supervision  of  school  authorities  and  sold  at  cost  to 
the  children.    In  cities  where  such  service  is  not  provided 
actual  investigation  has  shown  thai   children  spend  their 
money  for  a  sausage  and  roll,  pretzel,  cinnamon  bun,  ic    1 
cakes,   marshmallow   cakes,   hot   corn   rolls,    candy 
licorice,  chocolate  peppermints,  and  candy  rolls;   whereas 
if  given  an  opportunity  they  would  gladly  spend  the  same 
amount  of  money  for  such  things  as  bean  soup,  rice  pudding, 
cocoa,  milk,  royal  lunch  crackers,  graham  crackers,  sp 
wafers,  dates,  milk  chocolate,  and  stick  candy.    By  actual 
experiment  it  has  been  found  that  purchases  of  the  same 
degree  of  food  value  cost  exactly  twice  as  much  on  the 
average  when  made  from  the  street  vender  as  when  made 
in  the  school  lunchroom. 

The  Philadelphia  experiment.    In  1894  the  Star  Center 
Association  of  Philadelphia  started  a  penny-lunch  servi 
at  the  James  Forten  School,  Sixth  and  Lombard  Stl 
The  School-Lunch   Committee  of   the   School    and    Home 
League  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  original  School-Lunch 
Committee  of  Star  Center,  and  the  first  of  its  kind  in  I 
United  States.    In  October,  1907,  the  service  of  the  Fort  □ 
School  was  reorganized  and  service  in  two  additional  scho 
begun.  In  May,  1010,  in  order  to  have  an  organization  el 
tic  enough  to  meet  the  growing  demand  for  school  lunch 
and  which  could  readily  be  ext (aided  to  all  public  schools, 
the  School-Lunch  Committee  was  organized  as  a  standing 
committee  of  the  Home  and  School  League  of  Philadelphia* 


270  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

In  September,  1911,  this  School-Lunch  Committee  under- 
took a  definite  experiment  in  order  to  find  out,  first,  whether 
or  not  children  will  buy  wholesome  food  at  school  if  given 
the  opportunity,  and  what  price  they  can  pay  for  it;  and 
second,  to  demonstrate  a  method  of  serving  school  lunches 
which  would  (a)  maintain  a  definite  standard  of  food  and 
service  at  the  lowest  possible  cost,  and  (b)  become  support- 
ing to  the  extent  of  food  costs,  preparation,  and  service. 
The  experiment  was  carried  on  for  five  years  under  the  im- 
mediate direction  of  Dr.  Alice  C.  Boughton,  secretary  of  the 
committee.  At  the  end  of  the  five-year  period  a  report  was 
published  by  the  School-Lunch  Committee,  giving  its  find- 
ings and  recommending  that  the  committee  be  discontinued 
as  a  private  organization,  and  thai  the  work  be  taken  over 
and  administered  as  part  of  the  regular  public  school  system. 
This  is  the  most  important  experiment  in  school  feeding  of 
which  we  have  as  yet  any  record;  and  much  of  the  material 
which  is  presented  in  this  chapter  is  taken  from  or  suggested 
by  the  Reports  rendered  by  the  Philadelphia  School-Lunch 
Committee. 

What  school  lunches  are.  In  certain  schools  of  Phila- 
delphia the  penny  lunch  was  served  during  the  morning 
recess.  It  consisted  of:  (1)  one  or  two  hot  dishes,  such  as 
rice  pudding,  cocoa,  creamed  lima  beans,  macaroni  with 
tomato  sauce,  bean  soup,  cream  of  tomato  soup,  succotash, 
cream  of  corn  soup;  (2)  milk;  (3)  crackers,  such  as  royal 
lunch,  hard  pretzels,  ginger-snaps,  graham,  spice  wafers, 
oatmeal  crackers,  and  others;  (4)  jam  sandwiches,  made  of 
royal  lunch  crackers  and  apple  butter  or  jam;  (5)  fresh, 
dried,  or  stewed  fruit;  (6)  clear  sugar  candy,  peppermints, 
and  sweet  chocolate;  (7)  ice-cream  sandwiches,  cut  six  to  a 
five-cent  block.  Each  portion  cost  one  cent  and  represented 
one  hundred  calories  of  fuel  value.  Children  were  urged  to 
buy  the  hot  dish  or  milk,  but  were  not  forced  to  do  so. 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 

At  many  of  the  special  cla        and  open-air  classes  dk 
elaborate  meals  were  served.   These  varied,  from  the  three- 
cent  lunch,  which  consisted  usually  of  a  double-size  portion 

of  soup  with  bread  and  sometimes  fruit,  to  full  and  elabo- 
rate meals.  Children  in  the  open-air  classes,  For  example, 
were  in  some  cases  given  breakfasts,  recess  Lunch,  dinner, 
and  afternoon  lunch  by  the  school  authorities,  and  care 
was  taken  to  provide  a  plentiful  supply  of  nourishing  f" 
at  each  of  these  meals.  In  many  American  cities  the  food  for 
the  open-air  class  costs  about  thirty  cents  a  day  per  child, 
and  represents  approximately  three  thousand  calories.  It  is, 
of  course,  true  that  where  school  lunches  arc  already  I »<-1hlc 
provided  for  all  children  at  cost,  the  expense  <>f  providing 
more  ample  meals  at  noon  for  special  classes  is  very  consid- 
erably reduced,  because  of  the  attendant  saving  in  equip- 
ment and  food  materials  which  can  be  effected  through  the 
larger  organization. 

Theory  of  school  feeding.   There  an4  two  opposing  tl 
ries  of  school-lunch  service,  both  of  which  arc  now  repre- 
sented in  existing  practice  in  the  United  States.    In  the  iir>t 
place,  it  is  claimed  that  the  lunch  service  is  a  matter  of 
charity.     It  provides  food  for  those  children  who  are  too 
poor  to  secure  proper  nourishment  at  home.     Where  this 
point  of  view  is  held,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  that  the 
lunchroom  is  established  and  maintained  through  priv. 
auspices  cooperating  with   the   public   school   authority 
Money  is  raised  from  various  sources,  and  expended  for  the 
more  needy  children.    In  a  few  instances  the  public  school 
authorities  themselves  have  established  and  conducted  tl 
lunch  service,  but  still  regard  it  as  a  matter  ^\'  charity  t'»  be 
carried  on  in  the  poorer  portions  of  the  city.   The  other  a 
newer  theory  is  that  the  school  lunch  meets  a  real  need  «>f 
all  growing  children,  regardless  of  their  economic  and  social 
status.    The  child  of  the  rich  is  as  apt  to  be  hungry  m  the 


272  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

middle  of  the  morning  as  the  child  of  the  poor,  and  is  surely 
as  much  in  need  of  wholesome  food.  Charity  must  often 
provide  for  the  poorer  children,  but  school  lunches  them- 
selves are  not  primarily  a  charitable  concern. 

The  concessionnaire.  It  is  a  very  common  practice  in  the 
United  States  to  run  school  lunches  on  the  so-called  "con- 
cessionnaire" plan,  whereby  the  school  provides  room, 
equipment,  heat,  and  light,  and  gives  the  privilege  of  pre- 
paring and  selling  food  to  certain  persons  who  carry  on  the 
school  lunch  as  a  profitable  business.  Sometimes  the  con- 
cessionnaire is  a  neighboring  caterer  or  delicatessen  owner. 
Frequently  it  is  a  woman  of  the  community  who  takes  this 
way  of  earning  extra  money.  The  concessionnaire  is  usually 
subjected  to  very  slight  supervision.  Sometimes  the  work  is 
very  well  done.  All  too  frequently,  however,  the  food  pur- 
chased is  of  poor  quality,  it  is  badly  cooked,  and  sold  to  the 
students  at  exorbitant  prices.  Naturally  if  the  work  is  car- 
ried on  as  a  business  investment  the  concessionnaire  plana 
to  get  as  much  money  as  he  can  for  as  little  outlay  as  pos- 
sible. The  students,  naturally,  must  often  get  the  worst  of 
the  bargain.  By  far  the  better  plan  is  to  have  regular  sales- 
women and  their  helpers  hired  directly  under  the  direction 
of  the  superintendent  of  school  lunches,  and  subject  to  care- 
ful supervision  by  her  department. 

The  supervisor.  The  school-lunch  organization  should  be 
part  of  the  department  of  school  hygiene,  and  the  supervisor 
of  lunches  should  be  directly  subordinate  to  the  director 
of  school  hygiene.  She  should  have  the  same  standing  as 
the  medical  inspector  and  psychologist,  and  should  be  her- 
self a  trained  dietitian  with  considerable  experience  in  the 
organization  of  school-lunch  service. 

The  duties  of  the  supervisor  are  many.  They  include,  in 
the  first  place,  the  standardization  of  equipment  and  serving 
utensils.   If  the  school  lunch  is  to  be  spread  over  the  entire 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 

city,  it  must  be,  if  not  entirely  at  least  very  nearly,  self- 
supporting.  This  means  that  the  greatest  care  must  be 
exercised  to  secure  the  best  and  most  durable  material  at 
the  lowest  possible  cost.  Utensils  must  be  simply  d<  ed, 
easily  cleaned,  and  yet  attractive  in  appearance. 

In  the  second  place,  the  supervisor  musl  be  responsible 
for  the  standardization  of  lunch  service  and  of  recipes. 
Under  the  old  method  each  concessional  ire  made  her  own 
recipes,  purchased  her  own  food,  and  displayed  it  any  way 
she  saw  fit.  The  skillful  supervisor  of  lunches  attends  to  all 
these  matters,  so  that  not  only  will  the  food  purchased  be 
of  standard  quality,  but  it  will  be  prepared  according  to 
standard  methods,  and  be  displayed  to  the  children  in  such 
a  way  as  to  be  appetizing  and  desirable.  Much  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  school  lunch  depends  upon  the  skill  of  the  sal 
person  in  awakening  children's  appetites. 

In  the  third  place,  the  supervisor  must  attend  to  the 
engaging  and  training  of  sales-people.  This  is  an  immensely 
important  part  of  her  work,  since  most  of  the  good  effect 
of  the  lunch  can  be  entirely  spoiled  if  careless,  p<  ><  >rly  t  rained, 
or  uncleanly  women  are  put  in  charge  of  the  service  in  the 
individual  schools. 

Fourth,  the  supervisor  must  attend  to  the  standardiza- 
tion of  record  blanks  and  account  forms.  This  is  particu- 
larly important  in  a  large  system.  If  the  lunch  is  to  he  self- 
supporting,  the  most  minute  care  is  necessary  in  gathering 
and  keeping  records  and  in  analyzing  accounts.  It  is  only  l>y 
closest  kind  of  calculation  and  planning  that  a  deficit  can 
be  avoided  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Fifth,  the  supervisor  must  arrange  for  the  extension  of 
lunch  service  to  new  schools.  She  must  plan  all  lunchrooms 
and  order  all  equipment. 

Sixth,  she  must  be  a  person  sufficiently  well  prepared  to 
handle  all  publicity  material,  such  as  exhibits,  report.-,  and 


274  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

special  articles,  answer  correspondence,  and  give  talks  in 
public  on  the  subject  of  school  feeding. 

Saleswomen.  A  saleswoman  is  needed  for  each  school 
where  lunch  is  served.  The  qualifications  for  saleswomen 
vary  according  to  the  amount  of  work  required  from  them. 
In  schools  where  cooking  is  actually  done  on  the  premises, 
the  woman  must  be  a  good  practical  cook,  with  some  under- 
standing of  the  simpler  facts  of  dietetics.  Much  of  the  in- 
formation necessary  for  good  work  can  be  acquired  during 
service  under  careful  supervision.  Whether  cooking  is  actu- 
ally done  on  the  premises  or  not,  the  saleswomen  must  be 
able  to  keep  accurate  accounts  and  to  make  friends  with 
children.  When  saleswomen  are  only  required  for  short 
periods  during  each  day,  excellent  workers  may  frequently 
be  found  among  the  married  women  of  the  community  who 
understand  simple  housework  and  are  glad  to  earn  a  little 
extra  money.  The  saleswoman  prepares  the  hot  dishes  which 
are  cooked  at  the  school,  keeps  account  of  materials  used, 
sends  in  requisitions  for  increased  supplies,  takes  charge  of 
the  actual  selling  of  the  food  to  children,  receives  all  money, 
and  takes  care  of  certain  small  bills  from  her  petty  cash 
account.  It  is  well  to  have  a  plan  whereby  every  saleswoman 
shall  report  once  each  week  in  person  to  the  head  of  the 
school-lunch  division.  WTiere  schools  are  very  large,  or 
heavy  amounts  of  cooking  must  be  done,  saleswomen  must 
often  have  under  their  direction  one  or  more  assistants, 
who  should  be  appointed  and  paid  by  the  central  office. 

Pupil  workers.  In  some  schools  an  effort  is  made  to  put 
the  entire  responsibility  for  school  lunches  upon  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  older  girls  who  are  taking  courses  in  domestic 
science.  It  is  claimed  that  this  work  makes  domestic  science 
a  practical  subject  and  gives  the  girls  valuable  experience. 
Undoubtedly  there  is  much  truth  in  this  statement,  but  as  a 
regular  policy  the  scheme  is  open  to  severe  criticism.   Food 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 


ZlO 


is  to  be  served  at  low  cost  and  yet  the  system  is  to  be  self- 
supporting.    It  is  necessary  to  provide  very  simple  menus 

which  include  comparatively  few  dishes,  and  tih  erved 

over  and  over  again.  Where  school  children  are  used  to  pre- 
pare and  serve  the  food,  the  tendency  is  to  sacrifice  the 
actual  teaching  of  cooking  in  order  to  have  I  be  school  lunch 
run  on  an  economical  basis.  The  girls  cook  the  same  thii 
over  and  over,  and  after  the  first  few  days  tluv  fail  to  gain 
much  valuable  experience  or  information  from  their  tasl 
Domestic-science  classes  may  occasionally  assist  with  the 
school  lunch  with  great  benefit  to  themselves,  bul  they 
should  not  be  called  upon  to  carry  it  throughout  the  year. 
In  the  same  way,  while  it  is  often  desirable  to  have  a  few 
children  assist  in  serving  and  clearing  up,  it  is  not  well  to 
have  the  same  children  do  this  for  long  periods  of  time.  The 
office  of  assistant  should  be  regarded  as  an  honor,  and  be 
awarded  to  new  candidates  at  frequent  interval-.  It  is 
usual  where  children  serve  as  helpers  to  give  them  a  free 
meal  in  exchange  for  their  labors. 

Centralization  of  the  school  lunch.  One  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  making  the  school  lunch  self-support- 
ing is  to  see  to  it  that  down  to  the  smallest  detail  everything 
is  planned  out  and  nothing  is  left  to  chance.  Where  cities 
are  willing  to  pay  the  extra  cost  it  may  be  Well  to  leave  much 
to  the  initiative  of  the  individual  school  or  saleswoman;  but 
where  it  is  necessary  to  cut  expenses  down  to  the  very  low- 
est figure,  the  most  careful  planning  and  standardization  is 
called  for.  This  means,  for  example,  that  food  for  all  the 
schools  in  the  city  shall  be  ordered  from  a  central  depart- 
ment, so  that  not  only  shall  the  quality  of  raw  food  be  uni- 
form, but  that  full  advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  discount 
which  is  given  on  wholesale  purchases. 

In  the  same  way  all  menus  and  the  reci]K>s  Followed  should 
be  prepared  by  the  dietitian  at  the  central  olfiY       This  is 


276  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

particularly  important  where  not  only  must  the  element  of 
cost  be  carefully  calculated,  but  also  the  amount  of  food 
value  in  each  penny  portion.  Long  and  careful  study  is 
necessary  in  order  to  be  sure  that  the  highest  possible  food 
value  is  being  given  to  school  children  at  the  lowest  possible 
cost.  This  work,  by  its  very  nature,  cannot  be  undertaken 
by  the  less  highly  trained  sales-person  at  the  individual 
school.  In  working  over  the  matter  of  food  value  the 
Philadelphia  School-Lunch  Committee  found  that  the 
manufacturers  of  staple  food  articles  are  frequently  not 
only  willing  but  glad  to  have  the  opportunity  to  have  their 
own  food  products  analyzed  by  a  food  chemist,  so  that 
the  schools  may  know  the  number  of  calories  in  each  unit 
of  their  products.  Manufacturers  regard  the  school-lunch 
business  as  distinctly  valuable,  and  are  glad  to  go  out  of 
their  way  in  order  to  assist  the  school  dietitian  in  making 
such  calculations. 

In  some  systems  cooking  is  done  at  each  individual  school. 
By  far  the  most  economical  and  efficient  arrangement  is  to 
have  central  kitchens  established  in  the  high  schools  and 
centrally  located  elementary  schools,  in  which  cooked  food 
for  all  the  schools  in  the  surrounding  districts  shall  be  pre- 
pared. The  food  is  packed  in  heat-retaining  receptacles, 
and  is  delivered  to  the  individual  schools  either  by  messenger 
or  by  automobile.  The  plan  of  centralized  cooking  secures 
not  only  a  saving  in  cost  and  preparation,  but  frequently 
insures  a  more  palatable  result,  since  higher-paid  cooks  may 
be  employed  in  the  central  kitchen  than  would  be  possible 
where  cooking  is  done  at  each  of  the  separate  schools. 

Hygienic  requirements.  It  is  often  suggested  that  school 
teachers  should  be  required  to  undergo  careful  physical 
examination  before  they  are  allowed  to  enter  upon  their 
duties.  Such  a  provision  is  even  more  desirable  in  the  case 
of  saleswomen  who  handle  food  sold  to  children.  The  exam- 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 

ination  of  saleswomen,  and  the  giving  of  free  medical  advice 
whenever  necessary,  should  be  a  regular  part  of  the  medi 
inspector's  duty.  In  the  actual  work  ofjthe  lunchroom  sal 
women  and  pupil  assistants  should  be  required  to  wash  th 
hands  before  touching  any  food.    Saleswomen  should  m 
white  aprons  which  entirely  cover  their  regular  garments,  «>r 
else  should  have  a  working  uniform  which  is  used  only  while 
on  service.    Street  garments  of  saleswomen  should  Qot  be 
hung  in  the  kitchen,  but  should  be  placed  in  special  ward- 
robes provided  for  that  purpose. 

In  serving  food  care  should  be  taken  that  articles  which 
are  likely  to  catch  dust,  such  as  dates,  figs,  candy,  and  < 
tain  types  of  crackers,  are  carefully  wrapped   in   oiled  or 
waxed  tissue  paper  so  that  dust  cannot  reach  them.     It 
not  necessary  to  place  all  food  upon  dishes     S  >me  articles 
may  be  carefully  piled  on  squares  of  paper  placed  <>n  the 
counter.    After  all  the  food  is  arranged  the  entire  conn; 
should  be  covered  with  white  cloths,   and    kept    covere  I 
except  when  the  food  is  actually  being  sold.    Tables  and 
counters  should  either  be  made  with  glass  or  white  enamel 
tops  so  that  they  can  be  washed  down  every  day  with  hot 
water,  or  they  should  be  covered  with  strips  of  white  oil- 
cloth which  are  washed  and  removed  to  a  safe  place  aft 
the  meal.   Food  is  usually  given  out  on  the  self-service  plan; 
that  is,  it  is  piled  on  counters  and  children  are  allowed  to 
pass  single  file  before  the  counter  and  select  what  they  want 
to  eat.    It  is  usually  a  good  idea  to  have  buckets  filled  with 
cold  water  placed  near  the  exit  to  the  lunchroom,  and 
this  all  children  shall  place  their  soiled  dishes  as  they  lea 
the  room.  This  practice  makes  dishwashing  much  r  and 

prolongs  the  life  of  enamelware.   In  speaking  of  the  question 
of  school  hygiene  the  Philadelphia  Report  reads  as  follows:  — 

The  lunchrooms  and  adjacent  halls  should  be  swept  with  damp 
sawdust  at  least  once  a  day;  cement  floors,  when  provided  with 


278  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

proper  drains,  should  be  washed  at  least  once  a  week,  and  oftener 
in  stormy  weather.  If  cement  floors  are  cold,  damp,  and  hard,  slat 
mats  at  counter,  sink,  and  door  should  always  be  provided.  They 
are  easily  kept  clean. 

The  ventilation  of  basement  lunchrooms  is  difficult,  for  generally 
they  are  not  included  in  the  ventilating  system  of  the  school.  When 
windows  are  open  in  wet  and  windy  weather,  rain  pours  in,  or  else 
dust  and  dirt  from  the  street.  On  this  account  it  is  better  to  close 
the  windows  during  the  lunch  period  and  air  the  room  before  and 
between  recesses,  when  the  lunchroom  counter  is  covered. 

Records  and  forms.  In  a  system  where  cost  is  an  impor- 
tant feature  it  is  essential  that  the  most  careful  record- 
keeping system  be  installed.  It  is,  however,  very  difficult 
for  unprofessionally  trained  women,  such  as  most  of  the 
saleswomen  must  necessarily  be,  to  keep  accounts  accurately 
without  special  instructions.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why 
it  is  so  wise  to  insist  that  every  saleswoman  shall  report  at 
the  office  of  the  supervisor  of  the  school  lunches  once  a  week. 
At  this  time  she  carries  with  her  her  weekly  reports  of  money 
received,  food  given  out,  and  the  like,  and  has  an  oppor- 
tunity to  confer  with  the  supervisor  on  the  subject  of  account- 
keeping.  Much  of  the  most  efficient  supervision  can  be 
given  during  these  office  interviews.  Watch  can  be  kept 
upon  the  work  of  all  the  people  without  there  being  any 
feeling  of  spying  or  criticism.  Principals  of  schools  and  sales- 
women should  be  provided  with  loose-leaf  notebooks  of 
uniform  size,  and  so  far  as  possible  all  the  report  blanks 
should  be  of  this  same  size  so  that  they  may  be  filed  away 
together  in  one  cupboard.  The  forms  needed  must  vary 
with  the  individual  system.  The  forms  suggested  by  the 
Philadelphia  School-Lunch  Committee  as  desirable  are  the 
following :  — 

Form  1  —  Time  sheet.  The  time  sheet  has  on  it  a  space  for  every 
day  in  the  month,  with  the  words  arrived  and  left,  for  each  day. 
This  sheet  is  kept  in  the  office  of  the  principal  at  the  school,  and 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 

the  saleswoman  puts  under  the  word  arrived  the  hour  at  which 
'reaches  the  school,  and  under  the  word  left  the  hour  at  which 
is  ready  to  go.    Each  month  this  sheet  is  countersigned  by  the 
principal  and  brought  to  the  central  office. 

Form  "2  —  Cash  capital  account.  This  form  is  filled  <>wt  by  the 
individual  saleswoman  and  balanced  monthly.  It  shows  the 
amount  of  petty  cash  on  hand,  cash  received,  cash  expended  md 
balance  at  the  end  of  the  month. 

Form  3 —  Week  order  slip.     Filled  out  by  the  individual 
woman,  telling  the  amount  of  goods  on  hand  at  the  Bchool,  and  an 
estimate  of  the  goods  which  will  l>e  needed  during  the  coming  week. 

Form  J/.  —  Memoranda.  Uniform  slips  giving  date,  school,  and 
name  of  saleswoman,  to  be  used  for  all  memoranda,  whether  for 
orders  for  food,  new  or  renewed  equipment,  changes  in  the  recipes 
or  service,  or  the  like. 

Form  5  —  School    recipes.     Name  of    school,  name  of    art i< 
number  planned  to  serve,  ingredients   needed,  and  directions  for 
cooking. 

Form  6  —  School-luncheon  account.  A  loose-leaf  accounl  sheet, 
kept  by  months  for  each  school.  Name  of  school,  name  of  sales- 
woman, luncheon  recipes  by  week,  cost  of  food,  and  sundry  cash 
expenditures. 

Form  7 —  Weekly  menu  sheet.  Showing  recipes  prepared  each 
day,  materials  used,  number  of  portions  made,  and  date  >old. 
This  form  is  turned  into  the  office  each  week. 

Form  8 — Salaries  due.  Order  from  the  supervisor  of  school 
lunches,  showing  the  amount  of  salaries  due  each  of  the  sale-women. 

Form  9  —  Order  sheet.  Giving  address  to  which  material  shall  in- 
sent,  and  initials  of  person  actually  placing  the  order. 

Form  10 —  Table  arrangement  form.  Blank  showing  table  arrange- 
ment of  different  foods.  The  success  in  selling  various  foods  de- 
pends upon  the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged  on  the  counter. 
Children  are  apt  to  take  those  things  which  are  near  the  front  and 
are  apt  to  overlook  those  at  the  back,  unless  the  ones  farther  away 
are  familiar  dishes  which  they  have  already  tried.  Saleswomen 
find  it  a  distinct  help  to  receive  suggestions  from  headquaii 
as  to  the  way  in  which  food  shall  be  arranged  upon  the  counter, 
and  the  amount  of  each  article  which  shall  l>e  served  as  a  penny 

portion. 

Form  11  —  Transfer  of  food.  Blank  showing  record  of  food  ma- 
terial transferred  from  one  school  to  another.    It  shows  the  date, 


280  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

school  from  which  food  is  taken,  school  to  which  it  is  delivered, 
name  of  food,  amount,  and  cost. 

Form  12  —  Yearly  summary.  For  individual  schools,  showing 
by  months  the  number  of  different  forms  of  lunches  sold,  receipts, 
cost  of  food,  and  salary  charges,  gain  or  loss. 

Form  12a  —  Monthly  summary.  The  same  thing  by  months  for 
all  schools. 

Form  13  —  Yearly  recapitulation  sheet.  Recapitulation  sheet  for 
all  schools,  showing  by  months  total  receipts,  total  sales  of  hot 
food,  and  per  cent  of  hot  food  sold  as  compared  with  cold  food. 

Form  14-  —  Cracker  list.  List  by  individual  schools,  showing  for 
each  month  the  different  kinds  of  crackers  sold  and  the  cost  of 
each.  Similar  forms  are  kept  for  other  kinds  of  food  materials 
purchased  at  each  school. 

Form  15  —  Equipment  inventory.  List  of  equipment  at  a  given 
school.  Duplicates  of  the  list  are  kept  at  the  different  schools  and 
at  the  central  office. 

Form  16  —  Food  inventory.  List  for  each  school  showing  food 
materials  on  hand  when  inventories  are  made,  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  each  year,  and  at  intervals  throughout  the  year. 

Costs.  The  Philadelphia  experiment  worked  out  a  rather 
careful  system  of  cost-accounting.  The  main  divisions  in 
the  administration  of  the  Philadelphia  lunch  service  were 
equipment,  overhead  charges,  supervision,  food  preparation, 
and  service.  So  far  as  practicable  the  committee  divided 
costs  under  these  groups  for  individual  schools,  as  well  as 
for  the  system  as  a  whole.  Under  these  groups  this  method 
of  cost  division  showed:  first,  the  cost  of  every  part  of  the 
service  at  every  school;  second,  furnished  opportunity  for 
comparing  costs  in  the  various  schools;  and  third,  gathered 
material  for  formulating  working  standards  applicable  to 
all  schools.  Probably  no  small  part  of  the  success  of  the 
committee  in  making  the  system  self-supporting  was  due 
to  this  careful  method  of  cost-accounting. 

It  is  usually  very  hard  to  make  any  careful  estimate  of 
overhead  charges  for  school  lunches  because,  in  general, 
lunchrooms  are  established  in  basement  playrooms  or  un- 


SCHOOL  FEEDING  281 

used  classrooms,  where  the  proper  rental  charge  is  difficult 
to  ascertain.  Rent,  light,  water,  gas,  and  janitor  service 
should  be  charged  to  the  account  of  the  school  lunch, 
according  to  the  amount  it  utilizes,  but  any  Buch  charge  is 
at  present  very  difficult  to  place. 

1.  Equipment.  The  Philadelphia  Report  shows  that  the 
initial  cost  of  new  school  equipment  is  about  ten  cents 
per  child.  Such  equipment  lasts  five  years.  It  consists  of 
cooking- and  serving-utensils,  the  former  of  blocked  tin,  the 
latter  the  best  grade  of  Swedish  while  enamel.  Tl  is 
kept  down  by  having  children  served  In  relay-  and  having 
dishes  washed  between  serving,  by  buying  equipment  of 
durable  quality,  and  by  serving  certain  foods,  such  as  'Pack- 
ers or  fruit,  without  dishes.  In  1913-13  the  Philadelphia 
committee  spent  2.46  cents  per  child  for  new  and  renewed 
equipment.  The  following  year  it  spent  1.29  cents  per  child. 
Fixed  equipment,  such  as  gas  range,  sink,  closet,  cooking- 
and  serving-tables,  and  benches  are  permanent,  and  no 
special  fund  need  be  set  aside  for  their  renewal.  Excepting 
where  the  more  expensive  centralized  kitchens  arc  to  be 
installed,  the  cost  of  equipping  a  lunchroom  in  an  elementary 
school  does  not  exceed  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  and  in 
many  cases  need  not  exceed  one  hundred  dollars. 

2.  Supervision.  According  to  the  Philadelphia  Report  the 
cost  of  supervision  varies  with:  (1)  the  degree  to  which  t 
service  is  organized;  (2)  the  type  of  service,  whether  indi- 
vidual or  on  the  central  kitchen  plan;  (3)  the  number  of 
portions  served;  (4)  the  per  capita  expenditure;  5  the  price 
per  unit.  In  general,  supervision  in  elementary  schools  ifl 
more  costly  than  in  high  schools.  In  the  elementary  school 
the  group  served  is  generally  smaller,  has  less  money,  and 
is  affected  by  the  seasons,  weather,  and  outside  attractions. 
Children  spend  their  pennies  for  horns  at  Halloween,  and 
tops  and  skipping-ropes  during  the  first  warm  days  of  sprii 


282  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

In  Philadelphia  high  schools  about  one  dollar  out  of  every 
nine  dollars  is  spent  on  supervision.  In  the  elementary 
schools  one  dollar  out  of  every  six  dollars.  In  1913-14,  in 
the  elementary  schools,  the  cost  of  supervision  was  about 
twenty-four  one  hundredths  of  a  cent  per  penny  portion. 
This  charge  included  not  only  the  actual  supervision  of  the 
lunch  system,  but  the  original  conception  and  organization 
of  the  system.  The  committee  believed  that  after  the  sys- 
tem was  organized  and  in  full  running  order  the  charge 
could  be  greatly  reduced.  It  held  that  in  a  system  covering 
three  hundred  elementary  schools,  supervision  for  each  por- 
tion served  should  not  be  more  than  three  one  hundredths 
or  four  one  hundredths  of  a  cent.  This  expenditure  would 
insure  for  the  children  clean,  wholesome  lunches,  served  in 
a  clean  place,  under  conditions  which  would  insure  their 
getting  right  food  standards. 

3.  Preparation  and  service.  It  was  found  in  Philadelphia 
that  the  preparation  and  service  cost  varied  inversely  with 
the  number  of  children  served.  In  small  schools  it  was  some- 
times as  much  as  one  and  eight  one  hundredths  cents  per 
portion,  while  in  large  schools  with  large  attendance  and 
well-placed  equipment  it  ran  as  low  as  twenty-six  one  hun- 
dredths of  a  cent  per  portion.  It  is  believed  that  by  careful 
planning  and  a  system  of  central  kitchens  the  cost  of  service 
would  be  very  materially  decreased.  Each  portion  served 
was  planned  to  represent  one  hundred  calories  of  food  value, 
and  could  usually  be  sold  for  three  fourths  of  a  cent  when 
the  cost  of  supervision  and  service  was  not  included.  Here 
again  cost  may  be  materially  decreased  by  a  system  of 
buying  at  wholesale  and  in  quantities  for  the  entire  system. 

A  very  careful  study  must  be  made  of  school  conditions 
if  lunch  sales  are  to  be  maintained  at  a  high  standard.  It 
was  found  at  Philadelphia  that  an  average  of  sixty  pennies 
was  spent  for  every  one  hundred  children  in  attendance 


SCHOOL  FEEDING 

daily.     The  one  factor  affecting  the  sales  was  The 

younger  children  spent  less  than  the  older  ones,  tpting 
in  the  kindergarten,  where  children  were  given  more  mo; 
than  the  children  in  the  first  and  second  grades.  The  aver- 
age expenditure  per  child  per  year  was  about  $1.20.  Lunch 
sales  were  largely  affected  by  weather  and  season  of  the  year, 
but  did  not  parallel  the  curve  of  school  attendance.  During 
the  winter  months  hot  food  was  largely  bought,  regardli 
of  the  particular  attendance  during  thai  time.  The  ii  la  carte 
plan  was  more  popular  than  table  (Thdie;  thai,  is,  the  chil- 
dren preferred  a  choice  of  three-penny  units  to  a  three-cent 
combination.  More  lunches  were  sold  at  the  ten  o'cl  ick 
recess  than  at  any  other  time. 

The  children's  taste  varies  not  only  with  the  different  nationali- 
ties and  localities,  but  at  different  ages  and  according  to  the 

weather  and  time  of  year.  The  colored  children  like  their  fo  1 
very  sweet;  the  Jewish,  theirs  wry  salty:  Borne  children  will  not 
eat  rice  pudding  without  raisins;  others  will  not  eal  it  with  raisins. 
The  menu  for  any  school  is  a  matter  of  nice  adjustmenl  among  a 
conflicting  set  of  "musts."  The  lunch  must  appeal  to  the  children; 
it  must  average  the  standard  amount;  and  it  musl  be  self-support- 
ing.  It  takes  time  and  thought  to  reconcile  these  differences  to 
reach  the  point  where  children  get  their  money's  worth  o!  fi 
they  like  which  measures  up  to  the  standard. 

The  Philadelphia  Report.  The  Report  of  the  Philadelphia 

School-Lunch  Committee  has  been  quoted  at.  some  length 
in  this  chapter,  because  the  report  itself  was  written  ex- 
pressly for  the  purpose  of  recording  the  results  of  a  scienl 
experiment  in  education,  and  for  famishing  to  stui  of 

education  the  information  which  they  need  in  order 
understand  what  is  involved  in  the  establishment  of  a  sys- 
tem of  school  lunches  on  a  large  scale.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that. 
from  time  to  time,  private  organizations  carrying  <>n  edu- 
cational experiments  will  outline  a^  clearly  the  problems 
to  be  solved,  keep  as  careful  and  scientific  a  record  of  the 


284  HEALTHFUL  SCHOOLS 

progress  of  the  work,  and  when  the  conclusion  is  reached 
present  the  data  secured  in  a  form  which  may  readily  be 
utilized  by  school  administrators  throughout  the  country. 
The  School-Lunch  Committee  of  the  Philadelphia  Home 
and  School  League  has  made  a  real  contribution  to  educa- 
tional knowledge. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Is  the  school  board  justified  in  spending  money  for  coal  with  which 
to  warm  children  from  the  outside?  Would  it  be  justified  in  spending 
money  for  food  with  which  to  warm  children  from  the  inside?  What 
if  any  difference  exists  between  the  social  principles  involved? 

2.  Local  shopkeepers  object  to  school  lunches  on  the  ground  that  they 
interfere  with  trade.  How  far  is  this  claim  a  valid  reason  against 
school  feeding? 

3.  How  much  choice  should  children  have  in  deciding  what  they  will 
eat?  Should  they  be  allowed  to  buy  ice  cream  and  nothing  else?  What 
about  candy?  Some  children  will  eat  mush  if  it  is  given  free,  but  will 
not  buy  it.  Is  this  an  argument  against  including  mush  in  free  menus? 

4.  Should  mothers  be  allowed  to  buy  the  school  lunch  and  eat  with  their 
children?   What  arrangements  should  be  made? 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Boughton,  Alice  C.  Household  Arts  and  School  Lunches.  Cleveland  Educa- 
tion Survey  Monographs.  Division  of  Education,  Russell  Sage  Foun- 
dation, New  York.    (1916.) 

Careful  survey  study  of  school-lunch  system  in  a  large  city. 

Bryant,  Louise  Stevens.  School  Feeding.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  Philadelphia. 
(1913.) 

Its  organization  and  practice  at  home  and  abroad.    Best  book  on  the  subject. 

Bryant,  L.  S.,  and  Boughton,  A.  C.  Symposium :  The  School  Feeding  Move- 
ment and  Administration  of  School  Luncheons.  Psychological  Clinic 
Press,  Philadelphia,  Pa.    (April  15,  1912.) 

Burnham,  W.  H.  F.  Food  and  Feeding,  in  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 
The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York.    (1911.) 
Gives  argument  for  school  feeding. 

School  Lunch  Committee,  Home  and  School  League,  Alice  C.  Boughton, 
Superintendent.  Annual  Reports.  Home  and  School  League,  1505 
Land  Title  Building,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Most  valuable  series  of  reports  on  the  Philadelphia  experiment. 


INDEX 


Acetylene  gas,  81,  82,  83. 

Air  (see  also  Ventilation),  83,  34; 
cleaning,  127,  131,  152;  inlet  posi- 
tion, 151;  moistening,  152. 

American  Association  for  Promoting 
Hygiene  and  Public  Baths,  104. 

American  School  Board  Journal,  14, 
30. 

Anderson,  Mrs.  E.  M.,  ventilation, 
133. 

Assembly  rooms,  fire  protection,  K'»;5. 

Athletics,  241-4S;  badge  test,  242; 
girls,  243,  244-47;  group,  213; 
importance,  241;  league  of  public 
schools,  244. 

Atmosphere.  See  Heating,  Ventila- 
tion, Air. 

Attics,  25,  48;  fire  protection,  161. 

Auditorium,  doors,  163;  exits,  en- 
trances, 39,  163;  lighting,  39,  40; 
location,  15,  39,  L6S;  stage,  39; 
toilets,  39;  uses,  39. 

Auditoriums,  39,  40;  wardrobes,  39. 

Ayres,  L.  P.,  address  before  X.E.A., 
130. 

Ayres,  L.  P.  and  May,  Health  Work- 
in  the  Public  Schools,  226;  Public 
Schools  of  Springfield,  Illinois,  87; 
School  Buildings  and  Equipment, 
12,  123. 

Ayres,  May,  A  Century  of  Progress  in 
Schoolhouse  Construction,  G5. 

Ayres,  May,  and  Cooper,  P.  I.,  Safe- 
guarding Schoolhouses  from  fire, 
180. 

Barnard,  Henry,  62;  School  Archi- 
tecture, 12. 

Basement,  23-25;  dimensions,  24; 
doors,  172;  fire  protection,  172; 
uses,  23,  24,  37,  40,  100,  106,  115, 

172: 

Bass,  Dr.,  149,  154. 
Baths,  97-99,  103;  rural,  99;  show- 
ers, 98. 


Bins,  Fuel,  37,  172;  paper  ton 
fin-  protection,  87,  172,  17 1 
172. 

Blackboards,  classroom,  51, 
.')[.  cleaning,  195;  color,  7:5,  light- 
ing, :>l.  67,  75;  location,  ~>\. 
material,  6  I 

Bliss,  Dr.  F.  E.,  Supt.  Schools,  M<>nt- 
clair,  X.J..  experiment  with  oj 

;iir  schools,  265. 

Bolts  and   catches   for  doors, 
164,  168. 

Boughton,  Alice  C,  Household  Arts 

and  Sellout  I. in;-  - 1. 

Boughton,  Dr.  A.  C,  school-f 

270. 
Boy  Scouts,  250,  251,  256. 
Brewer.  I.  \\\.  Rural  lis,  104. 

Brookline,  Mass.,  School  Survey 

port,  180. 
Bruce,   W.   G.,    School    Architecture, 

30,  65,  87. 
Bryant.  L  S  I  .'.  284. 

Bryant,  L.  S.,  and  Boughton,  A.  ('., 

Symposium:    Tht 

Movement  and  Administration  of 

School  Luncheons,  2^i. 
Building,   apportionment  of 

16-17;    architect,     !•':    basement, 
28-25;    ceilin.  <  leaning, 

181-206;     community  L6; 

floors.     26  -2^;     foundation,     21; 
height,  6,  L9  20;  lighting,  7;  m 
rial,  20.  161;  orientation, 
plans,  14-16;    plans,  unit.   17-18; 
remodeling,  16;  roofs 
31-50;  site,  ill.  22. 

Burgerstein,    Leo,    School    Hygiene, 
L9,  65,  B7. 

Burnham,  W.  II.  F.,  Food  an    ! 
ing,  284. 

Calisthenics,  234,  237. 

Camp-fire  <  i iris,  i 

Carbon  dioxide  gas,  127,  12S,  133. 


28G 


INDEX 


Ceilings,  33-35,  37;  dispensary,  46; 
laboratories,  37;  toilets,  107. 

Census,  influence  on  locating  school, 
23;  recreation,  ££7. 

Chairs,  adjustment,  57;  cleaning, 
197;  location,  56;  minus  distance, 
59;  pedestal,  62;  shape,  58. 

Chalk,  53,  79;  dust,  55;  trays,  193. 

(liapin,  C.  V.,  Sources  and  Modes  of 
Infection,  207. 

Classroom,  see  Special  classrooms; 
ceilings,  33-35;  dimensions,  31-33, 
34;  equipment,  51-64;  exercises, 
237;  lighting,  32;  seating,  32;  size 
of  class,  33. 

Classrooms,  color  scheme,  73;  open- 
air,  38,  39. 

Cleaning,  erasers,  55,  195. 

Cleaning  the  schoolhouse,  181-206; 
air,  127,  131,  152;  basement,  24; 
blackboards,  53,  195;  ceilings,  46, 
107,  198;  corridors,  27;  disease 
transmission,  183-87;  doors,  29; 
dusting,  190-92;  floors,  27,  38, 
188-90,  192;  furniture,  197;  im- 
portance, 183-88;  janitor,  181; 
kindergarten  room,  38;  lunch- 
room, 14;  oiling,  il,  193;  preven- 
tion of  euntapous  diseases,  187; 
schedule,  203;  service,  202;  sweep- 
ing, dusting,  190-92;  toilets,  107, 
110,  112,  196;  vacuum  cleaners, 
198;  walls,  24,  28,  46,  107,  195, 
196,  201;  washing,  192,  203;  win- 
dows, 70,  71,  74,  197. 

Cleanliness  of  school  children,  edu- 
cation, 95,  98;  showers,  98,  99; 
soap,  97,  100,  113;  towels,  97; 
tubs,  100. 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  recreation  survey, 
252. 

Clinics,  210,  219. 

Colds,  28,  126,  127,  186. 

Color  schemes  in  classroom,  black- 
boards, 51,  73,  77,  79;  ceilings  and 
walls,  73,  107;  chairs  and  desks, 
73;  shades,  71. 

Community,  use  of  school  building, 
libraries,  53. 

Compulsory  education,  related  to 
exceptional  children,  259;  related 
to  medical  inspection,  208. 


Concessionaire,  272. 

Conferences  with  medical  staff,  221, 
233. 

Consolidated  schools,  architecture, 
14. 

Cook,  "William  A.,  Schoolhouse  Sani- 
tation, 12. 

Cooper,  F.  I.,  Committee  on  Standard- 
ization of  Design,  etc.,  16,  30. 

Cooper,  F.  I.  and  Ayres,  May,  Safe- 
guarding Schoolhouses  from  Fire, 
180. 

Cornell,  U.S.,  Health  and  Medical 
Inspection  of  School  Children,  226. 

Corridors,  24,  27;  fire  protection, 
162. 

Crane,  A.  N.,  pool  sanitation,  102. 

Crowley,  R.  ft.,  Hygiene  of  School 
Life,*  226. 

Cul>i>erlcy,  E.  P.,  School  Organiza- 
tion and  Administration,  12. 

Cupboards,  37,  173. 

Damp-proof  foundation,  21-22. 

Decoration  of  school  corridors,  163, 
L65. 

Desks,  56-63;  adjustment,  57;  clean- 
ing, 197;  color,  73;  height,  60; 
lighting,  68,  71,  84,  85;  location, 
56,  57;  minus  distance,  59;  mov- 
able top,  61;  shape,  58;  top-slant, 
60,  61. 

Dimensions  of  classrooms,  31-35. 

Director  of  Dept.  of  Hygiene,  214, 
233. 

Disease,  lesson  of,  25;  transmission 
of,  183-87,  196. 

Diseases  of  children,  colds,  28,  126, 
1*7,  186. 

Diseases  of  school  children,  28,  114, 
116, 126,  127, 186;  hookworm,  116; 
prevention,  36,  186,  187,  196,  209; 
tuberculosis,  132,  183,  185,  188. 

Disinfectants,  classroom,  197;  sun- 
light, 20,  186,  187;  toilet,  109,  196. 

Dispensary,  45,  46,  219;  equipment, 
46. 

Domestic  science  room,  24;  fire  pro- 
tection, 174. 

Domestic  science  students  as  lunch- 
room assistants,  274. 

Doors,  29,  163;  bolts  and  catches, 


INDEX 


88*3 


162,  163,  164,  168;  double,  168; 
fire  escape,  109,  170,  171;  glass 
panel,  75;  railroad,  Hi?  <is;  self- 
closing,  35,  1(52,  172;  toilets,  11£, 
121;  wardrobes,  36,  108  64. 

Drains,  bathroom,  08;  cement  floor. 
98,  278;  eaves,  2:5;  foundation,  22; 
ground,  9-10;  septic  tank,  US; 
toilet,  108,  100. 

Draughts,  26,  28. 

Dressing-rooms,  35,  99. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.,  American 
Schoolhouses,  12,  14,  21,  SO;  Rural 
Schoolhouscs  (iml  (-rounds,  21,  123; 
School  Architecture,  65;  School  Hy- 
giene, 12,  30,  65,  87,  104,  124, 
226;    School  Plant,  87. 

Drinking-cups,  92,  186. 

Drinking  fountains,  92;  height,  94; 
home-made,  94. 

Dust,  absorbing  compounds,  191; 
chalk,  55;  cleaning,  190. 

Economy  in  schoolbuilding,  14,  15, 
17,  19,  22,  23,  25,  34;  fire  protec- 
tion, 178;  roofs,  26. 

Elevators,  19,  38. 

Entrances  and  exits,  auditorium,  39, 
163;  domestic-science  room,  174; 
fire  escape,  169;  furnace  and  boiler- 
room,  172;  kindergarten,  37;  lab- 
oratory, 37;  library,  43;  lunch- 
room, 44;  wardrobe,  35,  163-64. 

Equipment  of  classroom,  51-64; 
blackboards,  51-55;  erasers,  55; 
furniture,  56-64;  open-air,  39;  plat- 
form, 51;  stage,  39. 

Erasers,  55,  56,  195. 

Exceptional  children,  257-66;  classes, 
262;  educational  treatment,  258; 
groups,  2.57;  socially  competent, 
259;   socially  incompetent,  260. 

Faneuil  Hall  Committee,  180. 
Fans  for  heating  and  ventilating,  37, 

149. 
Feeding.  See  School  feeding. 
Fire  escapes,  168,  169;  essentials  of, 

170;  inclined  plane,  169. 
Fire  prevention,  auditorium,  39, 163; 

janitor's  room,  48;  lunchroom,  45; 

storerooms,  37,  48,  173. 


Fin' pro'  olbuil 

i  ;.  j:.,  26,  91,  160  ; 
161 :  baa  meet,  174;  corridors,  162; 
doors,   LOS;  drills,    176  sny 

of,  178;  escs 

gushers,  I7<;.  kitchen,  1.7;  labora- 
tories,  :57;    manual   training 
domestic  old 

buildings,  105,  LOO;  pipes,  174; 
retard  161;  Is,      170; 

sprinklers,  17.7,  Btairs,  164;  v. 
174. 

Floors.  I  188,  184;  and 

■  '>'■>:  be  i,  27;  cl 

lss,  i!X>,  192;  corridors,  ^7 ;  cover- 
ing, 27;  dispensary,  r  ,na- 
siurn,  VK  193;  janitor's  room,  17; 
kindergarten,  -       5;  kitchen, 

material,   26;   oil   and   tar, 

special  classrooi 

rooms.  48;  toilets,  LOT,  1 18,  1 

Flues,  146. 

Follow-up  work  of   Medical   ; 

tion  Dcpi 
Foundation,  0    10,  21 
Fountains,  drinki  94, 

Furnace,  IK';  room,  17£;  humidify- 
ing apparatus,  ISO,  1 12  1 1.   I 
53,  164. 
Furniture,  8      1  Utd  Ch 

36,  38,  44,  i").  16,  17.  96  Oft;  ad- 
justable,^; color,  73;  dispensary, 

It!;  janitor's  room,  17;  library,  44; 
lunchroom,  44,   !•">;  movable, 
office,    40;    teachers'  room, 
workroom,  63. 

Games,  athletic,  -'11  48; 

237;  recess,  238;  space  for, 

supervision,  232,   2 

241. 
Gardening,  5,  6,  S,  9  10. 
Germs,  a  0  also  1 

children;  germicides,  186,  187, 

transmission  theories,  183  B7,  I 
Gongs,  170. 
Ground  air  and  ground  damp,  I 

10,  21. 
Grounds  of  school,  disadvantages  of 

high,  7-8  7. 

Gulick,  l>r.  L  II  .  ventilation,  I 
Gulick,  Dr.  Luther  H.  and  A 


2S8 


INDEX 


L.     P.,     Medical     Inspection    of 
School*,  226. 
Gymnasium,  25,  40,  43;  classes,  234; 
floors,  40,   193;   instructors,   233, 
230;  lavatories,  95. 

Hanmer,  Lee  F.  and  Perry,  Clarence 
A.,  Recreation  in  Springfield,  111., 
256. 

Health  of  rural  and  city  children 
compared,  28,  115,  240. 

Beating,  7,  23-24,  43,  125-58;  fans, 
1  19;  furnaces,  142;  hot  water,  144; 
humidostats,  154;  legislation,  140; 
lesson  of  contagious  disease,  125; 
steam,  1 15;  stoves,  141;  survey  re- 
sults, 126;  temperature,  1*0,  H7, 
129,  133,  135,  137-38,  153;  thermo- 
graph, 153;  thermometers,  153; 
thermostats,  154. 

Heating  and  ventilation  combined, 
24,  125-58;  direct  method,  14G; 
direct-indirect,  14(i;  indirect 
method,  146-52;  individual  and 
double  duct  system,  148. 

Height  of  building,  19-20. 

Height  of  rooms,  32-33. 

Hill,  Leonard,  128-29,  135. 

Hoag,  E.  B.  and  Terman,  L.  M., 
Health  Work  in  the  Schools,  226. 

Hose,  108,  176,  200. 

Household-economy,  plans  of  class- 
rooms, 42. 

Humidifying  apparatus,  130,  142- 
44,  152-53,  154. 

Humidity,  130,  135-36,  154. 

Humidostats,  154. 

Huntington,  Ellsworth,  137. 

Hygiene,  exceptional  children,  262. 

Hygiene  and  Physical  Education 
Department,  227-55;  activities, 
227-28,  232,  234,  240;  branches, 
Medical  Iuspection  Dept.,  214, 
233;  Physical  Training  and  Recre- 
ation Dept.,  227-55;  School  Lunch 
Dept.,  269-84;  clinics,  210,  219; 
field,  210,  218,  220;  staff,  214-18, 
233-34,  272-75. 

Hygiene  textbooks,  224. 

Improvement  of  old  schools,  base- 
ment, 24-25;  building,  23,  73,  198; 


doors,  168;  fire  protection,  162, 
163,  165,  166,  167,  173,  175;  foun- 
dations, 10,  23;  landings  of  stair- 
ways, 165, 166;  lighting,  10,  25,  73; 
site,  10;  stairs,  165,  166. 

Indirect  heating,  146;  40,  84. 

Ingraham,  Joseph  W.,  62. 

International  Y.M.C.A.  college, 
Springfield,  Mass.,  Ventilation 
Studies,  158. 

Ipswich,  Mass.,  survey,  251. 

Janitor,  181,  204,  205. 

Janitor's  room,  47. 

Janitor  service,  improvement  of, 
202. 

Johnson,  Dr.  G.  E.,  Education 
through  Recreation,  256. 

Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineer- 
ing Chemistry,  159. 

Kerosene,  80. 

Kimball,  Mr.  G.  G.  of  New  York 
Commission,   139. 

Kindergarten,  37-38;  floor,  27,  38, 
193;  lavatory,  38,  96;  toilets,  38, 
114. 

Kitchen,  45;  central,  276;  equipment, 
271;  open-air  classes,  38-39;  water 
supply,  91. 

Knight,  Howard  R.,  Play  and  Recre- 
ation in  a  Toum  of  6,000,  256. 

Laboratory,  37,  84. 

Ladder  fire  escapes,  168,  170,  171. 

Lamps,  acetvlene  gas,  81;  kerosene, 
80. 

Landings  on  stairs,  165-66. 

Latrine  toilets,  109. 

Lavatories,  24,  37,  95,  113;  kinder- 
garten, 38;  importance,  186-87; 
location,  24,  113;  soap,  97,  114; 
towels,  97,  114;  water-supply,  95. 

Lavoisier,  127. 

Legislation,  census,  2-3;  heating, 
140;  sanitation,  108;  site  of  build- 
ing, 2,  7,  255;  size  of  school 
grounds,  6;  ventilation,  140;  zones 
around  schools,  4-5,  10. 

Libraries,  43,  44;  community  use, 
43;  furniture,  44;  lighting,  43. 

Lighting,  artificial,  10,  76-86;  acet- 


INDIA 


ylene  gas,  81,  82,  83;  auditorium, 
39;  basement,  172;  dangers,  77  BO; 
desks,  68;  fire  protection,  17.">;  in- 
direct, 84;  kerosene,  80;  labora- 
tories, 84;  libraries,  48;  plant,  82; 
semi- indirect,  85,  80;  sta 
toilet,  106. 

Lighting,  natural,  7,  28,  66-76;  u 
germicide,  20,  180-S7,  192;  audi- 
torium, 24,  25,  39-40;  basement, 
37;  bathrooms  and  pool,  98,  100; 
blackboards,  51,  67,  75;  breeze- 
windows,  00;  color  schemes, 
glass  area,  67;  kindergarten,  'M\ 
manual  training  rooms,  30-37;  old 
buildings,  10,  25,  73,  74,  75;  ori- 
entation, 67;  overhead,  70;  related 
to  school  location,  7;  rules  for,  7, 
32-33,  37,  67-69;  toilets,  100-07; 
stairs,  164;  unilateral,  00. 

Linoleum,  27,  38,  190. 

Luncheon,  268-84;  argument  for, 
268;  branch  Dept.  of  Hygiene,  269- 
84;  centralization  of,  275;  conces- 
sionnaire,  272;  cost,  280;  menus, 
270;  open-air  classes,  38,  264; 
Philadelphia  experiment,  20:>. 
preparation,  282;  reports,  278; 
theory,  271. 

Lunchroom,  44;  accessibility,  4  k 
cleaning,  277;  equipment,  281; 
kitchen,  etc.,  45;  staff,  274,  282; 
uses,  44,  45;  ventilation,  278. 

Mann,  Horace,  56,  62. 

Manual- training  room,  24,  37,  41, 
174. 

Mason,  Water  Supply,  104. 

McCormack,  W.  R.,  schoolroom 
plans,  19. 

McCurdy,  Dr.  J.  H.,  re-circulation 
of  air,  154. 

McCurdy,  Dr.  J.  H.,  Springfield 
Y.M.C.A.  experiment,  131. 

Medical  inspection,  208-25;  admin- 
istration of  department  of  school 
hygiene,  214;  arguments  against, 
211^  class,  218;  clinics,  219;  com- 
pulsory education  and,  208;  fol- 
low-up work,  220;  growth,  209  1 D; 
individual,  218;  method,  21s: 
nurses,   216;   origin,   209;   physi- 


cians, 215;  recof 

2i<>;  st.-.ir  attitude,  -'^i 
Nbdieal  inspector,  216. 
Miller.   James    A  r,   of    ! 

^  ork  < Commission,  I 
Minneapolis,    Min  l  (,f 

Education,  90. 
Minus  distance  between  d 

chair. 

Mitchell,    Dr.    David,  and 

Chutes  for   I 

■7. 
Monroe,  1  >r.  Paul, ' 

cation,  80,  50. 
Montdair,    N.J.,    open-air    b  h 

264. 
Morrison,  A  .<   .  B2 
Movable  furnitun 

National     Education     A         ition, 

(  ommittee  on  Standardizati< • 

Schoolhouse  I  >>  sign  and 

tion,  16-17,  80. 
\ew    York   State    ( !omi  i    on 

Ventilation.  C.C.N.Y.,   I 
Nurses,  210. 

Office,  46. 

Oiling  floors.  2(5.  1 
Open-air    d 

luncheon,  38,  264,  271 
Open-air  classrooi  197 

•^ti.!:  equipment,  39,  \'r 

sentials.  263;  li_rliti':  \1    i  it  - 

elair  experiment,  2* 
Orientation.   20  21,   67;   <•!.;• 
20  21,  67;  kmdergartei 

i    cial   rooms,   :>(i;    t<»ilet.->.    LO 

dows.  (17. 
Out-door  theater.  0 

Overhead  lighting,  10,  10,  70  71. 

Paul,  Dr..  of  Breslau,  129 
Philadelphia  experiment  with 

lunches.  269,   28 

Philadelphia  tow.  r  fir 

Physical  Education  and  I 

Dept,  staff,  227. 
Physical   Training  and    R 

Dept.,     2^7    ">"..     tdministrat 

2S2;    athleti<>.    Al      be  .-.- 
Dept.  of   Hygiene  and   P 


290 


INDEX 


Education,  227;  classroom  exer- 
cises, 237;  cooperation  with  medi- 
cal inspection,  233;  educational 
sports,  247;  physiological  age,  236; 
playground,  6*  24,  230-32;  play- 
ground games,  238, 242;  posture 
work,  234. 

Physical  training,  recess,  238. 

Physicians,  215. 

Pipes,  19,  174. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Dept.  of  Building, 
Program  of  Construction  and 
Equipment  for  Grade  Schools,  17. 

Plans,  building,  14-20;  household- 
economy  rooms,  42;  manual- 
training  rooms,  41. 

Platform,  auditorium,  39;  classroom, 
51. 

Playground,  6,  19,  25,  240;  super- 
vision of,  232;  use  of,   -231,   232. 

Plenum  fan  system,  29,  150. 

Plot,  size,  5-7. 

Plumbing,  19. 

Plus  distance  between  desk  and 
chair,  59. 

Pools,  100;  construction  of,  100; 
cost  of  filtration,  102;  disinfecting, 
101 ;  regulations,  103. 

Posture,  234. 

Pressure  of  water  supply,  91. 

Prism  glass.   See  Window. 

Privy,  121-22. 

Public  highways  as  locations  for 
schools,   3-4. 

Rapeer,  L.  W.,  School  Health  Ad- 
ministration, 226. 

Ita  venal,  Hygiene  of  Swimming 
Pooh,  104. 

Reception-room,  46. 

Recess,  238. 

Re-circulation  of  air,  154-56. 

Recreation,  227-55;  activities  out- 
side school  hours,  240;  athletics, 
241-48;  classroom  games,  237; 
commercialized,  228;  cooperation 
with  medical  inspection,  233;  play- 
ground games,  238;  recess,  238; 
space,  230;  supervision,  232,  238- 
41;  surveys,  227;  use  of  school 
plant,  248.  _ 

Report  of  Joint  Committee  of  Na- 


tional Council  of  Education  and 

American     Medical     Association, 

117. 
Roofs,  25-26,  71,  161;  uses,  19,  25, 

38. 
Rooms,   31-50;   dimensions,   31-35; 

list  required,   18;  orientation,  20- 

21,  67;  special,  36-37,  84. 
Rowe,  S.  EL,  The  Lighting  of  School 

Rooms,  87. 
Running  track,  6. 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  Division 

of  Education,  180,  229. 

Safety  Engineering  Magazine,  180. 

Saleswomen,  lunchroom,  274. 

Sanitary  Schoolhouscs,  12k 

Sanitation  of  schoolhouse,  20,  24. 

Sawtooth  lighting,  70. 

School-Lunch  Committee,  269,  276. 

Semi-indirect  lighting,  85,  86. 

Septic  tank,  118-20. 

Sewing-room,  36,  96,  197. 

Shades,  71-73,  75,  187. 

Showers,  24,  98. 

Shutters,  73,  75. 

Site  of  school  building,  1-11,  22; 
improvement  of  old,  10;  summary 
of  requirements,  11. 

Skylights,  10. 

Soap,  97. 

Soil,  8-10. 

Special  classrooms,  36;  defective 
children,  36;  lighting,  84;  mov- 
able furniture,  36. 

Spiral  fire  escape,  170. 

Sports,  educational,  247. 

Springfield,  Mass.,  recreation  sur- 
vey, 250. 

Springfield  Y.M.C.A.  experiment, 
131. 

Springs  and  wells,  88. 

Sprinklers,  175-76. 

Stage,  39. 

Stairs,  32,  34,  164,  165-66,  168. 

Steam  heat,  145. 

Stereopticon,  39. 

Stiles,  C.  W.,  The  Sanitary  Privy,  Its 
Purposes  and  Construction,  124. 

Storerooms,  37,  84,  173. 

Stoves,  141. 

Sunlight.   See  Orientation. 


INDEX 


.   i 


Supervisor  of  Physical  Education 
and  Recreation  Department,  233. 

Supervisor  of  school  luncheons,  272- 
74. 

Survey,  heating  and  ventilation,  120; 
rural  sanitary,  117;  suggestions 
for  recreation,  250. 

Teachers,    of    feeble-minded,    261; 

playground  and,  2:5:?,  230. 

Teachers'  room,  46,  47. 

Temperature  of  school  room,  126, 
127,  129,  133,  136,  137  38,  L53. 

Terman,  Lewis  M.,  Hygiene  of  the 
School  Chil'L  226;  Section  on 
Buildings  of  the  Salt  Lake  City 
School  Survey,  87;  The  Building 
Situation  ami  Medical  Inspection, 
65. 

Thermograph,  153. 

Thermometers,  153. 

Thermostats,  154. 

Thorndike,  Ed.  L.,  Ruger,  G.  J.,  and 
McCall,  W.  A.,  Effects  of  Outside 
Air  and  Re-circulated  Air  upon 
Intellectual  Achievement  and  Im- 
provement, 159. 

Toilets,  105-23;  auditorium,  39;  au- 
tomatic flush  dangers,  141;  ceil- 
ings, 107,  196;  cleaning,  19G;  dan- 
ger of  contagion  from,  ISC;  doors, 
106, 112, 121;  dry  privies.  122.  dug 
privies,  121;  equipment  location, 
108;  extra  rooms,  114;  floors,  107, 
113,  196;  high  schools.  115;  hook- 
worm, 116;  individual  Bush,  110; 
kindergarten,  37:  latrines.  109; 
lavatories,  113;  lighting.  24,  100; 
location,  24,  106;  L.R.S.,  privy, 
121;  number.  108,  114;  open-air 
classes,  38;  outhouses.  12  2;  parti- 
tions, 112;  rural  schools.  155,  118, 
120;  rural  surveys,  117;  sanitation. 
24;  seats,  113.  196;  septic  tank. 
118;  typical,  105;  urinals.  10!);  ven- 
tilation, 114;  walls,  107,  190. 

Towels,  97,  113,  186. 

Transoms,  29. 

Transportation  of  pupils,  2,  10, 
20. 

Tuberculosis,    55,     132,    183,    185 
188. 


Unilateral  lightii 

I  Hit  Plan  Building,  1 3    19. 

Urinals,  L09,  122. 

Vacuum   i  leaner*,   198;   tools,  201 . 
types,  198  £01. 

\  entilation,  S3,  I  25  ir  <  leaning. 

L52;  air  moisteners,   l 
dioxide  gas,  1 27  .:i ;  engini 
experiments,    i-'^    ■-'     fai 
129,  137.  149;  flues,  l  W;  hum: 
staN.   154;  laboratories,  .">7.  I 
lation,   1  M);   lesson  <>f  conl 
diseasi  -.    125;    New    York 
\  entilal  ing      (  ommission,      l 
principles  of,  135;  re-circulation, 

15  1;    s<  -liciitc-.     1  1.7;    >!  !  11  ; 

toilets,  ill;  transoms,  29;  ward- 

ro!  36;  window,  :;i.  001 

132.  11.;. 
Von  Pettenkofer,  127. 

Walls.  28  2 ».  baa  tnent,  21,  2.7.  172; 

cleaning,  i(>7,  195;  dispensary . 

finish,  7.'..  7.7.  77;  fire  •  •  ipe,  166; 

materials,    21.    -1  107,    161, 

162;  toilets,  107. 
Wardrobes,  19,  35,  86,  39,  I 
W  aste  bins,  172. 
Water  supply,  B8  104;  carrying 

hand,  B9;  cooler  attachments,  !»l, 

equipment,    9*J ;    fire    protei  tion. 
17.7;   fountains,    '.'2  95;   not, 

individual  cup.  92;  lavatories, 

pressure,    91;    achool    wells,    91; 
showers,  98;  springs  and  wells. 

tubs  and  pools.  100. 

Wells.  88,  90. 

Wider  use-  of  school  plant,  i';. 

7«;.  248  50. 
Wind  break,  7  B,  10. 
Window!  iudi- 

torium,  2i.  2.7.  39  i'1.  basemt 

21.  Minds.     7 

.  cleaning,   197;  dimen- 
sions. c,7.  69;  tines,    i  p;,  frai 
68, 69;  glass,  10,  74,  107; 

library,  bS;  location,  7.  10,  67, 
prism  glass,   69;  shades,  71,  '■' 
special  rooms.  36;  itj 
7<).  107;  toilets,  106  "7.  1 1 
tilating,  S4,  i 


.V»/V 


INDEX 


Whipple,  Guy  Montrose,  Questions 

in   School  Hygiene,  12;    Value  of 

Pun  Wafer,  104. 
Winslow,  E.  A..  Chairman  of  New 

York  Committee  on  Ventilation, 

146. 
Wires,  tire  protection,  174. 


Witmer,  Lightner,  The  Special  Class 
for  Backward  Children,  267. 

Yard  of  School,  5-7,  230-32. 

Zero    distance    between    chair    and 

desk,  59. 
Zone.  4-5,  10. 


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